Copyright 1995 by Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc. temple A temple is a building or enclosed space set aside for worship. Temple architecture in general can be divided into three categories: the open-air sanctuary; the cave, or rock-cut, temple (a secret place of worship); and the house for the deity or cult object, also called the freestanding temple. Not considered temples are the Christian CHURCH, the Jewish SYNAGOGUE, and the Muslim MOSQUE, although their forms and functions often resemble those of temples. PREHISTORIC TEMPLES The Magdalenian societies (15,000-9000 BC) of the Paleolithic period used natural caves such as those found at ALTAMIRA in Spain and LASCAUX in France. Elaborately decorated with paintings, and occasionally with sculpture, these caves provided a sacred space for hunting rites (see PREHISTORIC ART). The oldest (c.6000-5650 BC) artificial temples extant are those discovered at CATAL HUYUK, Turkey. Constructed of mud brick on a timber framework, these cavelike enclosures have plastered walls covered with paintings and molded sculpture dedicated to a MOTHER GODDESS cult. Other types of Neolithic temples include the open-air sanctuary of STONEHENGE (c.2100-1900 BC), which probably served a calendrical function, and the rock-cut, domed temples of Malta (c.3000-2000 BC), dedicated to a mother goddess cult. MESOPOTAMIA The Mesopotamian temples of the period 3000-500 BC were intended to serve as houses for deities--the house's existence ensured the deity's presence and, under the proper circumstances, its protective influence. Mesopotamian temples were almost invariably rectangular in layout and built of mud brick. The worshiper entered through a doorway in one of the long sides of the building; the cult statue stood to the left, and the altar for offerings to the right. Surrounding the main room were storage rooms. Early Mesopotamian temples were the first raised structures of their kind--for example, the so-called White Temple at URUK (c.3000 BC), dedicated to the god ANU, was elevated by a 12.2-m-high (40-ft) artificial mound and approached by a ramp. True ziggurats (see ZIGGURAT)--stepped, pyramidal structures rising from a rectangular or square base--were built first by the Sumerian civilization. In the ziggurat at UR, built (c.2100 BC) by UR-NAMMU, the temple is placed atop a series of concentric mud-brick terraces piled one on top of the other to a height of more than 30.5 m (100 ft). Ur-type ziggurats were approached by three steep stairways and guarded by a gatehouse to bar the unauthorized from entering. The Babylonians, under Hammurabi, continued traditional Sumerian forms, but the KASSITES reoriented their temples to face east and added sculpture in molded bricks, as can be seen in the Temple of Karaindash (c.1440 BC) at Uruk, dedicated to the mother goddess Innana. The earliest Assyrian temples, such as that of Ishtar, built between 1241 and 1205 BC by Tikulti-Ninurta I, had an off-axis doorway to the cult room and two flights of interior stairs leading to a niche for the cult statue. These internalized ziggurats gave way in late Assyrian architecture to true ziggurats that contained as many as seven different levels connected by a continuous ramp. Some of these structures rose to heights of 90 m (300 ft) or more, and many, such as that at KHORSABAD (c.706 BC), had steps made of colored brick. The Neo-Babylonians produced the ziggurat of NEBUCHADNEZZAR II (c.612-539 BC) at BABYLON, which had white, black, red, blue, orange, silver, and gold levels. The sacred rooms atop these later ziggurats were used for astronomical observation as well as for devotional rites. EGYPT Temples in ancient Egypt were of two main types: freestanding temples for deities and temples attached to funerary structures. Rock-cut temples of both types also were used. The purpose of freestanding temples was to house a cult statue, whereas the funerary shrines were built to receive the offerings for the dead. Freestanding temples of the Old Kingdom period (2680-2258 BC) generally followed the layout of the Temple of Khentiamentiw (c.3000 BC) at ABYDOS, which is about 15.25 m (50 ft) long, trapezoidal in shape, and composed of successive rooms that culminate in a niche for the cult statue. Funerary temples such as that of Khafre (c.2600 BC) at GIZA, which were attached to PYRAMIDS by causeways, housed statues of the king, in which his spirit was thought to be present to receive offerings. In the Middle Kingdom period (2134-1786 BC) freestanding temples were built at Karnak, Luxor, Medamud, and Tod, but all have disappeared beneath their New Kingdom successors. The most remarkable extant structure of this age is the combined mortuary temple and tomb of the 11th dynasty at DEIR EL-BAHRI begun (c.2050 BC) by King Mentuhotep II. The tomb's central core--recently proved to have had a flat roof--was surrounded by a sculptured and painted colonnade and was approached by a ramp leading to the structure through a garden. The greatest proliferation of Egyptian temple building took place during the New Kingdom period (1570-1080 BC). Three typical examples of freestanding temples are the Temple of Amon at KARNAK, the Temple of Amon at LUXOR, and the Temple of the Aten at Karnak, all of which were constructed between 2060 and 1200 BC. Basically similar in organization, all three temples had monumental gateways, or pylons, leading to a succession of courtyards and halls laid out along a central axis. As the worshiper moved along the axis, the interior gradually grew dim until almost total darkness shrouded the cult statue standing at the end of the axis. The plan of the impressive New Kingdom temple of Re Harakte at ABU SIMBEL, constructed (c.1250 BC) under King RAMSES II, is similar to that of Egyptian freestanding temples except that the structure is carved out of a cliff face and colossal statues of the king replaced the pylons. The vast rock-cut mortuary temple (c.1480 BC) of Queen HATSHEPSUT is perhaps the outstanding structure surviving from the New Kingdom. Built at Deir el-Bahri just north of the temple of Mentuhotep, it is composed of two terraces surrounded by decorated colonnades; the entire edifice was fronted with lush gardens. MEDITERRANEAN PERIPHERY Hittite temples present an unmistakably different aspect from that of Mesopotamian temples, although the two temple types display some similarities (see HITTITE ART AND ARCHITECTURE). Common features of Hittite structures are central courtyards open to the sky, entrances on the axes, pillared halls on at least one side, and subsidiary rooms. The cult chamber usually is located off-axis and is lighted by outside windows. Typical examples (c.1400-1250 BC) can be found at BOGAZKOY, Turkey. Solomon's Temple The most renowned temple of this age was the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. Completed (c.952 BC) with the aid of Phoenician artisans, it was destroyed in 586 BC; most of the knowledge about it comes from the Bible and from the evidence supplied by other Palestinian temples. Apparently the temple faced east and had three main rooms disposed axially with the entrance. The anteroom, or Ulam, was a rectangular space entered through one of the short sides; flanking the Ulam were square rooms that led to the small storage rooms, or Yasiya, that surrounded the temple on the other three sides. Beyond the Ulam was the main sanctuary, or Hekal, and beyond that, a flight of stairs that led to the Holy of Holies, or Debir, where the Ark of the Covenant was kept. The temple was built out of stone and had a flat wooden roof made from imported cypresses and cedar. Bronze pillars known as Yakhin and Boaz, which may have symbolized the relationship between the monarchy and the temple, stood in front of the edifice. MINOAN CRETE AND MYCENAEAN GREECE So far as is known, no monumental freestanding temples were built by the Minoan civilization of Crete (fl. 2200-1500 BC; see MINOAN ART) except possibly Arkhanes. The west wings of Minoan palaces did contain shrines and associated rooms, and the palaces at KNOSSOS and Zakro (c.1600-1450 BC) had public altars situated in their central courts. Minoan culture greatly influenced roughly contemporary Mycenaean civilization of Greece (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION; MYCENAE), whose shrines are known primarily through representations on seal rings. The most significant feature of Mycenaean structures was their use of the megaron, or HOUSE form, which influenced much of early GREEK ARCHITECTURE. GREEK TEMPLES Archaic Period The earliest Greek temples date from the end of the Orientalizing period (7th century BC). Along with small funerary temples dedicated to heroes, buildings erected to house large cult statues were the principal form of temple at this time. The Mycenaean megaron plan seems to have provided the model for these early structures, which had two-columned porches and hipped or gabled roofs. The Temple of Apollo at Thermon (c.620 BC) in Aetolia was a true temple of the Doric order, made of wood; wooden pillars gradually gave way to stone pillars, as in the Temple of Hera (c.600 BC and later) at OLYMPIA. Initially, the cult room, or cella, of Greek temples was a long, dark space with a row of columns down the center. Because this plan obscured the statue, the temple builders gradually adopted a shorter cella with two rows of columns, one on either side of the statue. At about the same time, the Ionic order began to appear in Greek colonies in Anatolia, particularly in the Temple of Hera (c.575 BC) at Samos. The Samos temple apparently inspired the Temple of Artemis (c.560-546 BC) at Ephesus, which featured a double colonnade influenced by Egyptian temple halls. Doric and Ionic temples of the archaic period (600-480 BC) display tendencies toward larger scale, more harmonious proportions, and greater use of marble and decorative sculpture. Classical Period After the Persian Wars ended (479 BC), Greek culture entered its classical era, which was marked by a tremendous growth in building activity in Greece, Sicily, and southern Italy. The greatest Doric temples of classical Greece are the Temple of Zeus (designed c.460 BC) at Olympia and the Parthenon (447-432 BC) on the Athens ACROPOLIS, whose principal builders were ICTINUS and CALLICRATES. A century of refinement and experimentation produced in these buildings a harmonious blend of geometric proportions, optical effects, and sculptural decoration that have remained unmatched. Also reaching its apogee at this time was the Ionic order, whose delicate, graceful decorative effects were used to great advantage on the Acropolis in both the Erechtheum (421-405 BC) and the Temple of Athena Nike (c.427 BC). In the temple architecture of the late classical period, which was inaugurated by Ictinus's Temple of Apollo (c.420 BC) at Bassae, the interior space was transformed into an area for public assembly--a development that forced a return to the long cella. More prolix decoration began to appear on temple exteriors, where the newly designed Corinthian capitals made their initial appearance. Finally, a round temple form emerged for the first time in the Tholos (c.420 BC) at Delphi. Hellenistic Period During the Hellenistic period the Ionic order prospered, the Corinthian order became more popular, and the Doric order declined. Among the huge Ionic temples that were erected during the 4th century BC in Anatolia, particularly striking are the Temple of Artemis (rebuilt 356 BC) at Ephesus, the Temple of Apollo (c.330 BC) at Didyma, and the Temple of Artemis (c.325 BC) at SARDIS. All of these buildings are noteworthy for their complicated interiors. Sardis has a double cella, and Didyma a temple within a temple. On the Greek mainland the elongated, pedimented Hellenistic Doric temple largely was abandoned after 200 BC in favor of Corinthian structures such as the Temple of Olympian Zeus (completed AD 131) at Athens. ROME Republican Era Temples in republican Rome generally followed the Etruscan pattern of small structures that stood atop high podiums (see ROMAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE). They were made of a volcanic stone called tufa and featured a deep, columned porch and a narrow cella. An early example of this type is the Temple of Jupiter (c.510 BC) on the Capitoline; representative of later republican shrines are three tufa temples (c.100 BC) in the Forum Holitorium. Toward the end of the republican era, temple building passed through a transitional phase that engendered both traditional buildings such as the Temple of Fortuna Virilis (c.80 BC) in Rome and radically new structures such as the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia (c.80 BC) in Palestrina. Built on a steep mountainside at the order of the dictator Sulla, the Palestrina temple is an elaborate, symmetrically laid out, molded-concrete complex, in which the shrine itself seems lost amid the magnificent staircases, terraces, and fountains. Imperial Rome The victory (29 BC) of Emperor Augustus inaugurated an attempt to turn Rome from a city of brick into one of marble. Augustus chose to follow the Hellenistic and classical models of Greece, using concrete only in concealed parts of buildings. Many older temples were refaced with marble, and new shrines such as the Temple of Mars Ultor (2 BC) in the Forum Augusti were erected at the focal points of forum complexes. Sharing in this building boom were many of the Roman provinces, which were graced with new temples such as the MAISON CARREE (c.16 BC) in Nimes. The next great period in Imperial architecture was initiated by Emperor Hadrian, who built (AD c.118) the Temple of Trajan in Trajan's Forum. Hadrian's crowning achievement was the domed PANTHEON (c.118-28) in Rome, which reintroduced molded concrete into temple architecture. A tribute to both Roman engineering genius and Greek aesthetics, the Pantheon is a harmonious, balanced structure surmounted by an enormous hemispherical dome that symbolized the universe. The design of Byzantine churches and Muslim mosques was influenced greatly by the Pantheon. The Antonine emperors (r. 138-80) were more traditional builders, as the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina (c.141) in the Roman Forum attests, but the Severans (r. 193-235) introduced colossal temples dedicated to exotic foreign deities. Especially notable was the Temple of SERAPIS, built (c.215) by Caracalla, which had 12 columns across its 25-m-high (81-ft) facade. Emperor Aurelian's enormous Temple of the Invincible Sun (c.275), a round structure set within a rectangular enclosure, was the last important temple built in Rome. INDIA Buddhist Temples The Maurya emperors (r. 322-185 BC) are the earliest-known temple builders in India (see INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE). Emperor ASOKA, the most renowned patron of early Buddhism, sponsored the construction of thousands of stupas (see STUPA)--brick-faced, domical mounds containing the relics of the Buddha. During the Sunga period (185-172 BC), stupas became more and more elaborate structures, whose form symbolically represented the Buddhist universe. Asoka's reign also witnessed the appearance of rock-cut basilical temples known as chaityas. As they evolved, chaityas developed into colonnaded halls of worship housing the Buddha's image, which had become an integral part of the Buddhist temple. The chaitya at Karli (c.80 BC) is representative of this phase of chaitya building. An interregnum era (AD 1st-3d century), characterized by weak governments and few great monuments, was followed by the brilliant Gupta period (320-647), which is notable both for the climax of Buddhist art and the revival of Hinduism throughout the country. At this time, the Buddhist temple form culminated in elaborate, freestanding brick chaitya halls such as that at Chezarla (4th-5th century), and unprecedented square-plan temples, apparently derived from civil meeting-halls, appeared at Ladh Khan (c.450) and elsewhere. Hindu Temples Although the 5th-century brick temple at Bhitargaon established the prototype for Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia and in Indonesia, Hindu temple building did not make a significant impact in India until the ascension (647) of the Hindu dynasties. The Hindu temple was not a place of public assembly but a shelter for the deity's image; the temple's form often symbolized the world mountain. Of the three main types of Hindu temple--nagara, dravida, and vesara--the nagara is the oldest and the most important. Conical or convex in shape, the nagara is crowned with a spire known as a sikhara; a representative example is that at Galanganatha (7th century). The dravida, on the other hand, consisted of a series of ascending terraces, or bhumis, representing the hierarchy of the divinities; on each terrace is a stupika, or "little stupa." Typical vesaras, such as Bhima's Rath (625-74) in MAHABALIPURAM, were barrel-vaulted halls derived from Buddhist chaitya halls. The peak of Hindu temple building occurred in about 1000, when the opulently embellished nagara temples of KHAJURAHO were erected. Echoing the ornate sculptural decoration of later Hindu shrines were the fantastic white-marble temples of the Jain religion built at Mount Abu from the 10th to the 13th century. SOUTHEAST ASIA Cambodia Under the Khmer Empire, centered in modern-day Cambodia, temple architecture reached new heights in the period between AD 800 and 1450. At the Khmer capital of ANGKOR two great temple complexes dedicated to Vishnu, but reflecting Hindu influences, were built in the 12th century. Angkor Wat, built (1st half of the 12th century) by Emperor Suryavarman II, has been called the world's largest religious structure. The temple proper, a stupa-based stepped pyramid topped by 4 conical towers surrounding a 63-m (202-ft) central tower, rises from an immense 305-m (1000-ft) platform that, in turn, is set within a moated rectangular enclosure, whose perimeter measures nearly 4 km (2.5 mi). Surrounding the entire structure are three series of corbeled galleries. Most stunning of all is the magnificent low-relief sculptural decoration that covers the miles of walls. At the nearby temple complex of the Bayon (late 12th-early 13th century) in Angkor Thom, erected by Jayavarman VII, there is even more elaborate sculptural decoration. Indonesia Hindu and Buddhist temples vied for dominance in 9th-century Java and Sumatra. Indian influence is apparent in the greatest Javanese monument, the huge temple of BOROBUDUR (8th century), which is located atop a hill and approached by a rising series of stairways. The 9-level circular stupa, which surmounts a square stepped pyramid and is crowned with a lofty spire, is decorated with reliefs that illustrate in successive stages the process of Buddhist enlightenment. CHINA Chinese temples, unlike those of India or Southeast Asia, traditionally were made of wood--a fact that accounts for the relatively small number of structures that have survived (see CHINESE ART AND ARCHITECTURE). Temple construction dates back at least to the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (1027-256 BC). Poems of the Shi Jing (Shih Ching) (6th century BC) mention ancestor-cult temples containing pillared halls of pine and cypress, and Confucius mentions that certain types of architecture were appropriate to certain social ranks. Monumental shrines built during the Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 220) are comparable in stylistic development to the Roman development of Greek temple types. From this time, almost all Chinese temple complexes, regardless of the religion represented, follow the same basic plan of an open courtyard flanked on three sides by identical buildings and on the fourth side by a ceremonial gate. Many Daoist (Taoist) shrines were erected by Han emperors, but the greatest stimulus for temple building under the Han occurred when Buddhism was introduced (1st century AD) from India. Along with Buddhism came a variation of the Indian stupa form, on which the PAGODA--a tower composed of superimposed stories with overhanging roofs--was based. Buddhism flourished under the Six Dynasties (221-589). There were 42 pagodas in Luoyang (Lo-yang) under the Jin (Chin) (265-316). By the time of the Northern Wei (386-534) there were more than 500 in Luoyang alone and about 30,000 throughout Northern China, although most of these were destroyed in the reaction against Buddhism under the Northern Zhou (Chou, 557-81). As they proliferated, pagodas grew taller, and some stone structures began to appear. The usual number of stories increased from 3 in the 4th century to 5 in the 6th century, and Wudi (Wu Ti) of Liang built (535) a 12-story pagoda that reputedly was about 122 m (400 ft) tall. These pagodas are imitated in the surviving rock-cut temples of YUNGANG (Yun-kang) (late 6th century). Under the Sui (589-618) and Tang (T'ang) dynasties (618-906) imperial-scale building became the rule. The major temple form of this era was a complex consisting of two pagodas for relics and a central worship hall for the images of Buddha. Although other buildings in the temple complexes remained wooden, the use of masonry in pagodas became common. Toward the end of the Tang dynasty, Daoism regained preeminence, and Buddhist architecture declined. In the Five Dynasties (906-60) and Song (Sung, 960-1279) periods, temple building prospered, but it then declined as the emperors embraced the ascetic Chan (Ch'an) Buddhist sect. Song pagodas tended to be hexagonal or octagonal brick structures, as exemplified by the 13-story Tieta (T'ieh't'a, c.1044) at Kaifeng (K'ai-feng). The succeeding Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) further developed the Song temple-types into a three-stage division; a high base, a shaft, and a crown. Bases are octagonal and decorated with sculpture, as are the shafts, and crowns generally are composed of 13 close-set roofs. Under the Ming and Qing (Ch'ing) dynasties (1368-1912), temple construction, along with architecture in general, gradually declined into mere repetition of Song formulas. Among the few notable buildings erected were the 15th-century Taimiao (T'ai-miao), in Beijing (Peking)--a long, narrow assembly building that recalls early Chinese palaces--and the Zhihuasi (Chih-hua-ssu, completed c.1444), a Ming version of a traditional Buddhist structure. JAPAN The earliest-known Japanese temples were wooden Shinto shrines--largely unornamented and gabled-roofed sanctuaries that looked like granaries or houses (see JAPANESE ART AND ARCHITECTURE). Some, such as the Izumo Shrine (AD c.1st century) at Ise, were elevated structures approached by a flight of stairs. The interior generally contained an off-axis sacred chamber and a central pillar that symbolized the pillar of heaven. Each temple stood within an enclosure entered through elaborately decorated gateways, or torii. The first Buddhist temple in Japan was built (552) to house a gilded bronze statue of the Buddha presented to Emperor Kimmei by the Korean king of Paekche. Under the patronage of Prince Shotoku Taishi, who built (588) the Shitennoji Temple at Osaka, Buddhism became firmly established, and many pagodas were built. Unlike Chinese examples, Japanese Buddhist shrines were relatively simple sanctuaries consisting of the pagoda to shelter relics, and an assembly hall, or kondo, for worship of the Buddha's image. The difficulty of reconciling a large pagoda with the traditionally small Japanese monastery took centuries to resolve, and eventually pagodas were discarded or built outside the enclosure walls. An important innovation occurred when the Golden Hall of the Horyuji, at Nara, was created (c.607) as the shrine for two important images associated with Emperor Shotoku. After the Golden Hall, temples became larger and even more magnificent complexes. In the monastery at Yakushiji (c.720), the kondo resembled a Chinese throne hall, and the two pagodas were situated far from the center of the complex. During the Nara period (710-84) temple foundations grew even larger, rivaling those of Tang China. Particularly impressive was the huge monastery of Todaiji (begun 745), which demonstrated the primacy of the kondo and the removal of the pagodas from the sanctuary proper. The Heian period (784-1185), however, marked a revival of Japanese, as opposed to Chinese, forms. Reform elements in Buddhism reacted against the scale and luxury of Nara-style temples, and ritual-centered Tantric Buddhism became preeminent. The greatest sanctuary built in this era was the Hoshoji (1077) of Heian (now Kyoto), whose octagonal, nine-story pagoda was located on an island on axis with the kondo. The planning of the kondo received special attention at Hoshoji and other Tantric temples, at which rites had to be performed in secret but with the congregation present. This requirement led to the development of forehalls in Tantric kondos, such as that at Koryuji (c.818). During the Kamakura period (1185-1333), four styles of temple architecture coexisted: an archaic native style, two imported Chinese styles, and a progressive native style. Of the two Chinese styles, the Karayo, an imitation of Song architecture, was by far the most popular; the Tenjikuyo, introduced by Chinese architects, proved to be unsuited to Japanese taste. Because it was closely associated with the Zen sect, which gained many adherents in Japan in the 13th century, the Karayo flourished throughout the country. Its principal innovation was an elevated shrine in the kondo. Also widespread was a progressive Japanese style, the Wayo, which developed further the Heian style. Typical examples were Kanshinii (14th century) and Saimyoji (c.1250). The later Japanese periods (1333-present)--Muromachi, Momoyama, and Edo--displayed eclecticism and modesty of scale. Southward orientation, frequent in earlier periods, gave way, with the emergence of the Shin sect, to eastern orientation--the direction the Amida Buddha faced. Only the kondo received monumental treatment, and interiors tended to imitate palace architecture. Representative of this later style was the Honganji Temple (1585) at Kyoto, a shrine of the Shin sect. John Stephens Crawford Bibliography: Bernier, R. M., The Temples of Nepal (1970; repr. 1985); Boethius, Axel, and Ward-Perkins, John, Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture (1970); Dinsmoor, William, The Architecture of Ancient Greece, 3d ed. (1975); Fox, M. V., ed., Temple in Society (1988); Frankfort, Henri, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient, 4th ed. (1969); Gorer, G., Bali and Angkor (1987); Meister, M. W., and Dhaky, M. A., eds., Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture, 2 vols. (1988-89); Mellaart, James, Earliest Civilizations of the Near East (1965); Michell, George, The Hindu Temple (1978); Murray, Margaret A., Egyptian Temples (1931; repr. 1976); Paine, Robert, and Soper, Alexander, The Art and Architecture of Japan, rev. ed. (1975); Ramanish, J., Temples of South India (1989); Rowland, Benjamin, The Art and Architecture of India, rev. ed. (1977); Sickman, Laurence, and Soper, Alexander, The Art and Architecture of China, 3d ed. (1968); Sitwell, Sacheverell, Great Temples of the East (1962); Smith, William, The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt (1965); Tomlinson, R. A., Greek Sanctuaries (1977); White, L. M., Building God's House in the Roman World (1990).