c. 40,000-30,000 BC: Prehistoric hunters migrate from Asia across the Bering strait land bridge to settle North America. There are seven distinct Native cultures in Alaska, and dozens of sub-cultures. The primary Native cultures are the Inupiat and Yupik Eskimos of the Far North, the Aleuts of the Southwest, the Athabascan Indians of the Interior, and the Haida, Tlingit, and Tsimshian Indians of the Inside Passage. c. 9,000 BC: Native peoples are living along the Eramosa River near what is now Guelph, Ontario. 8,000 BC: Ice Age ending. Rising waters cover Bering land bridge. 5200 BC: The Sto:lo people are living alongside the Fraser River near what is now Mission, B.C. (Some say they may have been as early as 9000 B.C.) 5000 BC: Native peoples have spread into what is now Northern Ontario and Southeastern Quebec. c. 3500 BC: In Canada's southwest Yukon, the beaver tooth gouge comes into use. It becomes an important tool for woodworking in the subarctic area. c. 2700 BC: Copper implements and ornaments are fashioned by the "Old Copper" culture of Wisconsin from ore found in the area around Lake Superior. 2000 BC: Inuit peoples begin to move into what is now the Northwest Territories. c. 1900 BC: The Red Paint peoples, who live on the banks of Maine's Penobscot River, spread red ochre over their dead and their grave offerings. c. 1600 BC: In Illinois, Wisconsin, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, and Ontario, the glacial Kame peoples use the gravel ridges formed by melting glaciers for burial sites. c. 1400 BC: At a cemetary near Port Aux Choix in Newfoundland, treasured and useful articles, as well as carved images of animals and birds, are buried with the dead. c. 1100 BC: Woodland hunters in eastern North American depend on the canoe in their search for game. River travel gives them access to new forest areas. c. 1000 BC: The Woodland tradition of eastern North America begins. This tradition is characterized by burial mounds and elaborate earthworks. c. 700 BC: The civilization at Poverty Point, Louisiana, is at its peak, importing materials from as far away as the Great Lakes and Appalachian Mountains areas. 500 BC: Northwest Coast native peoples begin to flourish. c. 300 BC: The Marpole peoples of the Fraser Delta area in British Columbia are engaged in heavy wood working, building plank houses and dugout canoes. c. 175 AD: Funeral offerings in graves at the Norton Mounds in Michigan are elaborate. Materials imported from great distances indicate vigorous trade. c. 550 AD: In the Upper Mississippi and Great Lakes areas, Woodland peoples construct their burial mounds in the shape of birds or animals. c. 985-1014 AD: Norsemen, including Eric the Red and Leif Ericson, set up outposts in North America and encounter Eskimos, Beothuks, and Micmacs. c. 1000 AD: Leif (the Lucky) Ericson reaches Vinland, aka Labrador and L'Anse aux Meadows (northern tip of Newfoundland). Nordic people later establish short-lived settlements in Labrador and Newfoundland. c. 1014 AD: The first white colony in North America is established in Newfoundland. 1367 AD: The Norse colony in Newfoundland is less closely tied to Europe after this year, when the last royal ship makes the voyage to North America. 1492 AD: Christopher Columbus (1451-1506), backed by Spain, reaches San Salvador (Guanahani to the natives), "discovering the New World" and encountering Arawak and Taino people. Thinking he is in India, he calls them Indians. 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas divides the colonial world between Spain and Portugal. 1497-98: John and Sebastion Cabot explore east coast of North America for England. They kidnap three Micmac men. 1497: Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot, 1450-98), a Venetian in English service, during a voyage underwritten by Briston merchants, claims Cape Breton Island (or Newfoundland, or Labrador) for England on June 24, laying the basis for English claims to Canada and inspiring a series of further explorations. 1498: English explorer John Cabot, making a second voyage to North America (looking for Northwest Passage to India), travels the coast of Labrador, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, discovering Newfoundland Island, trades furs with Mik'maqs. c. 1500: European diseases begin killing native North Americans, who have no immunity to them. 1523-24: Giovanni da Verrazano, sailing for France, explores the Atlantic coast, encountering Wampanoag, Narragansett, and Delaware Indians. c. 1530-50: The French explorer Jacques Cartier sails up the St. Lawrence River, claiming the land for France. His failure to find a northwest passage - or gold, as the Spanish had in Peru - discourages further exploration. France was also too preoccupied with domestic religious wars to make any substantial commitment. The discovery of Canada was important, however, to English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese fishing fleets, all of which regularly fish the Grand Banks off the coast of Newfoundland. 1534-41: Jacques Cartier of France explores the St. Lawrence River area in three voyages, making contact with Algonquian and Iroquoian speaking tribes. On one trip he reaches the Huron towns of Stadaconna and Hochelaga (now Quebec City and Montreal). 1534: French explorer Jacques Cartier visits the Strait of Belle Isle (Newfoundlang), enters and charts Gulf of St. Lawrence River, landing in Gaspe, July 14. His ship becomes icebound, men suffering from scurvy aided by Haudenosee, who feed them vitamin C in boiled spruce. He takes two native Indians with him back to France. 1535: Cartier sails up the St. Lawrence River to Stadacona (Quebec) and Hochelaga (Montreal). 1541: Jacques Cartier and Sieur de Roberval attempt to colonize Quebec, founding the first French settlement in America, Charlesbourg-Royal, at the mouth of the Cap Rouge River. 1542: Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo and Bartolome Ferrelo explore the California and Oregon coasts. 1542: Charlesbourg-Royal is abandoned. Cartier meets the sieur de Roberval, who was officially part of the same expedition, in Newfoundland. 1564-65: Rene de Laudonniere heads French colony on St. Johns River in Florida until expelled by Spanish. French artist Jacques le Moyne paints first known European depiction of Indians. 1576: Martin Frobisher of England makes the first of three attempts to find a Northwest Passage, sailing as far as Hudson Strait. What he thought was gold discovered on his journey was later proven worthless. 1579: British Navigator Sir Francis Drake (c.1540-96) on a voyage around the world in the /Golden Hind/, claims California for Queen Elizabeth I. c. 1575: The English explorer Martin Frobisher continues the fruitless search for a passage to Asia. 1576-78: Martin Frobisher of England, seeking a Northwest Passage to the Pacific, encounters various Eskimo groups. 1583: Sir Humphrey Gilbert, brother-in-law of Sir Walter Raleigh, sails for Newfoundland from England. 1585: Sir Walter Raleigh founds colony on Roanoke Island in what will become Virginia. 1588: English fishing fleet delays sailing to Newfoundland to participate in the defeat of Spanish Armada. 1591: Gov. John White returns to the colony on Roanoke Island from a trip to England to find that the colonists have vanished. 1598: The Marquis de la Roche lands 40 convicts on Sable Island. 1599: Samuel de Champlain, French explorer, arrives, followed by Catholic missionaries. c. 1600: By now, perhaps 250,000 Indians and Inuit (Eskimo) inhabit what is now Canada. 1600: King Henry IV of France grants a fur-trading monopoly in the Gulf of St. Lawrence to a group of French merchants. 1603-15 - Samuel de Champlain's (c.1567-1635) voyages in the Northeast lead to contacts with many Algonquian and Iroquoian tribes. He explores the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the St. Lawrence River for France. 1603: A fur trade monopoly charter is granted by France to the sieur de Monts to all the land lying between 40th-46th degrees north latitude. He establishes trade settlements in Acadia (later Nova Scotia) and at Quebec City on the St. Lawrence. 1604-06: Mattieu da Costa travels with the Champlain expedition to Port Royal. He serves as an interpreter between the French and the Micmac Indians of the area. 1605-07: The Europeans are welcomed by Mi'kmaq Grand Chief Membertou, who converts to Catholicism, makes a wampum-belt treaty with the Vatican. 1605: Samuel de Champlain and the sieur de Poutrincourt found Port Royal on the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia (later to be named Annapolis Royal by the British), the first permanent French settlement in North America. 1607: English colonists found Jamestown, Virginia under John Smith, leading to extensive contact with the tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy. 1608: Champlain allies himself with the Algonquians and with the Hurons, who are amenable to missionary activities and acts as the principal suppliers of furs. This alliance, however, antagonizes the Iroquoian Confederacy, traditional rivals of the Huron and suppliers of furs to the Dutch in New Amsterdam. 1608: Quebec (the city) is established as a fur post by Champlain and French colonists on July 3, creating in effect the first permanent European settlement. 1609: The settlement of Quebec owes much to Samuel de Champlain, an explorer hired by the sieur de Monts, who became the foremost champion of French colonization. 1609: Champlain supports the Algonquins against the Iroquois at Lake Champlain. He fires on the Iroquois, setting a pattern of Indian relationships. 1610-11: The English explorer Henry Hudson, in Dutch service, continues the fruitless earch for a passage to Asia. 1610: Henry Hudson, in service of the Netherlands, explores the river named for him. Hudson explores Hudson Bay in spite of a mutinous crew. Mahattan Indians attack his ship. Mahican people make peaceful contact, and a lucrative fur trade begins. 1610: Etienne Brule lives among Huron and is first European to see Lakes Ontario, Huron and Superior. 1611: Champlain builds fur post at Montreal. 1613: In response to gunfire aimed at them, the Beothuk of Newfoundland kill 37 French fisherman. The French retaliate by arming the Micmac, traditional enemies of the Beothuk, and offering bounties for scalps. The Beothuk are soon virtually exterminated. 1613: Port Royal sacked by Samuel Argall and his pirates from Virginia. 1614: Franciscan Recollet friars arrive to convert the Indians. 1615: French Roman Catholic missionaries arrive in Canada. 1615: Champlain attacks Onondaga villages with the help of a Huron war party, this turning the Iroquois League against the French. 1616-20: Smallpox epidemic strikes New England tribes between Narragansett Bay and the Penobscot River. 1617: Louis Hebert, an apothecary who had stayed at Port Royal twice, brings his wife and children to Quebec, thus becoming the first true habitant (permanent settler supporting his family from the soil). 1620: Pilgrims from England arrive in Plymouth. 1621: Dutch West India Company chartered, expands up the Hudson and Delaware rivers. 1621 James I of England grants Acadia to Sir William Alexander who renames it New Scotland (Nova Scotia) 1622-46: Powhattan Confederacy Wars, Chesapeake Bay area. Source of phoney Pocahontas tale by English Capt. John Smith, after Pocahontas's death (married to John Rolfe, she died in England). John Rolfe Jr., after growing up in England, returns to Virginia, claims his grandfather's land, kills or enslaves his mother's relatives. Has one child (female) by an upper-class white woman, proudly "dies an Englishman". Colony's racist laws about Indians make a "Pocahontas Exception" for the English descendants of Rolfe, which in 1924 is re-enacted by the U.S. Virginia State legislature, in racist laws about Indians and Blacks. English Countess Mountbatten and other rich white people are among the descendants of the unfortunate Powhattan girl, so the "one drop of inferior-race blood" statutes make this Pocahontas Exception just for them. These racist laws -- and the Pocahontas Exception (also racist) -- remained in force in Virginia until overturned in the Supreme Court decision Loving vs. Virginia, 1969. This wasn't in the Disney cartoon. 1624: Dutch settlers found Fort Orange (Albany, New York) in New Netherland. 1625: French settlements in the West Indies begin, exporting sugar and tobacco, and emigration to Canada is encouraged among traders and fishermen. 1625: The Franciscan friars are replaced by the heroic priests of the richer, better-organized Society of Jesus. Jesuits begin missionary work among the Indians in the Quebec area. Jean de Brebeuf founds missions in Huronia, near Georgian Bay. 1626: Peter Minuit, governor of New Netherland, buys Manhattan Island for 60 guilders worth of beads from the Canarsie Indians. (Dutch later have to pay Manhattan Indians, actual occupants of the island.) Dutch policy is land payments to Indians, neutrality in Indian conflicts relating to French-English struggle. 1627: Cardinal Richelieu, chief adviser to Louis XIII, organizes a joint-stock company, the Company of One Hundred Associates (a.k.a. the Company of New France), to establish a French Empire in North America. It is given a fur monopoly and title to all lands claimed by New France (April 29). In exchange, they are to establish a French colony of 4000 by 1643, which they fail to do. 1628: Olivier Le Jeune, an 8-year-old boy from Madagascar, arrives in Quebec. He is the first recorded slave purchase in New France. Le Jeune is probably the first person of African origin to live most of his life in Canada. 1629: Quebec (the city) captured by an English fleet led by the adventurer David Kirke on July 19. (He also captured Port Royal the year before.) 1631: Charles de la Tour builds Fort La Tour (a.k.a. Fort Saint Marie) at the mouth of the Saint John River. 1632: British lose control of Acadia due to the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, which returns Quebec to France. 1632: Isaac de Razilly sails from France with 300 people hoping to establish a permanent French settlement in Acadia. 1632: Starting this year, Dutch colonists begin to demand more farmlands. 1633-: English and French settlers enlist mainland Indians, mostly Mik'maq to massacre Beothuk people of Newfoundland, who are now extinct. "Red" Indian apparently derives from these people, who painted their bodies with red ochre. Nancy Shawanahdit, the last Beothuk, died in 1829. Little is known of their customs, language, religion. Beothuk was not likely their tribal self-name. 1633-35: New smallpox outbreaks among Indians of New England, New France, and New Netherland. 1633: David Kirke is knighted. 1634-40: The Huron nation is reduced by half from European diseases (smallpox epidemic, 1639). 1634: The trade settlement at Trois-Riviers is founded. c. 1635: English fishing interests secure a virtual prohibition on efforts to colonize Newfoundland. 1636-37: Pequot War in New England. against the English. (Niantics, Narragansetts later joined). Capt. John Mason burnt sleeping Pequot village at Mystic River, pinning the people inside the flames by gunfire, killing more than 600 people in a surprise attack. Mohawks behead fleeing Pequot leaders to prove they were not involved. 1636: French crown grants Gulf of Maine and Bay of Fundy to d'Aulnay; La Tour gets Nova Scotia peninsula. 1637: David Kirke is named first governor of Newfoundland. 1639: Ursuline nuns come to North America, who educate girls. 1639: Smallpox epidemic decimates Huron people; population reduced by 50%. 1639: Dutch governor-general William Kieft adopts policy of exterminating the hostile Indians and taxing the rest. Dutch soldiers aid Mohawk allies to carry out Pavonia massacre, where Dutch soldiers played kickball with the heads of the women and children refugees they had killed. c. 1640: Beavers and otters nearly exterminated in Iroquois country. To expand territory, Iroquois launch decades-long "Beaver Wars" against Huron and other tribes. 1642: The trade settlement at Montreal is founded by the sieur de Maisonneuve, May 18. 1644: Second Powhatan Confederacy uprising against Jamestown; its leader, Opechancanough, dies in captivity. 1645-63: Under the proprietorship of Richelieu's company's colonial agent, the Community of Habitants, the new French colony takes shape along the St. Lawrence. 1648-49: After the Iroquois brutally ravage Huron country and disperse the Huron nation north of the St. Lawrence, they turn against New France itself. 1649-64: the Beaver Wars: Encouraged by the English, and the need for more beaver for trade (their own area being hunted out), Haudenosee (Iroquois) make war on Hurons (1649), Tobaccos (1649), Neutrals (1650-51), Erie (1653-56), Ottawa (1660), Illinois and Miami (1680-84), and members of the Mahican confederation. English, pleased with this, agree to 2-Row Wampum Peace treaty, 1680. 1649: Attacks by the Iroquois disperse the Huron; disrupts fur trade over the next fifteen years. 1649: The Jesuit father Jean de Brebeuf is martyred during Iroquois raids on the Hurons at St-Ignace (March 16). 1650-53: Huron survivors of the "Beaver Wars" settle at Lorette under French protection. 1652: Massachusetts General Court licenses traders going from Massachusetts to Acadia. 1654-59: Pierre Radisson, French Sieur de Groselliers, encounters a lot of tribes throughout New France, New England, and what's now the U.S. midwest. Adopted by a Mohawk family, who take him to Hudson's Bay. There he changes sides and becomes English, participates in the formation of Hudson's Bay Company, and charter of Rupert's Land to it in 1670, deftly switching country allegiances several times France-England-France-England during the process. Ends up English. Today principally remembered by a hotel named after him in Minneapolis. c. 1655: One of the /coureurs de bois/, adventurous, unlicensed fur traders who want to escape company restrictions, explores west of Lake Superior. 1657: Sulpicians, who run missions, come to North America. 1659: A vicar apostolic, the Jesuit-trained Bishop Francois X. de Laval-Montmorency (1623-1708) arrives in Quebec in June as vicar general of the pope to take command of the missions and to found parishes. 1660's-70's French compete with Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) and British fur traders out of New York. 1660-64: In 1660, Dutch governor-general Peter Stuyvesant decides to hold Indian children hostage for the behavior of increasingly angry tribespeople. Hostages sold into Carribean plantation slavery. 1660: English Navigation Act prohibits foreigners from trading with English colonies. 1660: Adam Dollard des Ormeaux and about sixty others withstand an attack by over 500 Iroquois at Long Sault (May). It is traditionally said that the small party fights so well that the Iroquois decide not to attack Montreal. 1663: The French Crown takes personal control of Canada from a private company, which becomes a royal province. Louis XIV's brillians minister J. B. Colbert reorganizes New France directly under royal authority. Administration is divided between a military governor and a more powerful intendant, both ruling from Quebec City but under orders from Paris. The fur trade is granted to a new monopoly, the Company of the West Indies. 1663: New France has a population of about 2,000. 1663: Laval organizes the Seminaire du Quebec, a college of theology which eventually becomes Universite Laval (1852). 1664: The British invade and conquer the Dutch at New Amsterdam, renaming it New York. England gains control of New Netherland from the Dutch and become allies and trade partners with the Iroquois. 1664: Hans Bernhardt is the first recorded German immigrant. 1665-72: Jean Talon (c.1625-94), the first intendant of New France, sets out to establish New France as a prosperous, expanding colony rivaling the thriving English colonies to the south. He invites many new settlers, including young women. He also tries to diversify the economy beyond furs and to build trade with Acadia and the West Indies. Talon is recalled before he can carry out his policies, however. 1665: The Carignan-Salieres regiment is sent from France to Quebec to deal with the Iroquois. Many of its members stay on as settlers. 1666: The Carignan-Salieres regiment destroys five Mohawk villages, eventually leading to peace between the Iroquois and the French. 1667: France, England and the Netherlands sign the Breda Treaty in July and with this England gives Acadia to France. 1667 First census of New France records 668 families, totalling 3,215 non-native inhabitants. 1668-69: Pierre Esprit Radisson and Medard Chouart, sieur de Groseilliers, explore west of the St. Lawrence River as far as Lake Superior, plus the Hudson Bay region, for England. 1668: The Carignan-Salieres regiment is recalled to France, but several hundred choose to remain behind, many in return for local seigneuries. 1669: HBC Ft. Charles, at foot of James Bay, becomes Ft. Rupert. 1670: Charles II (England) charters Hudson's Bay Company in London. Underwritten by a group of English merchants, HBC is granted trade rights over Rupert's Land -- i.e., all territory draining into Hudson Bay (May 2). No treaties or compensation to Indian tribes there (mostly Ojibwe, Cree) till late 19th and early 20th century; no treaties ever made on large expanse east of Bay. 1671-84: HBC Forts at mouths of Bay rivers: Moose 1671; Severn 1680; Albany 1683; York, finally on Hayes. 1672: Colonial postal officials employ Indian couriers to carry mail between New York City and Albany; winter weather is too severe for white couriers. 1672: Comte de Frontenac becomes governor general of New France, later quarrelling frequently with the intendant and the bishop. 1673: The explorations of Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette lead to the discovery of the Mississippi River. 1674: Laval becomes the first bishop of Quebec. 1675-76: Bacon's Rebellion -- Third major war between Virginia settlers and Virigina and Maryland Indians. Bacon's army kills and enslaves Susquehannock, Occaneechi, Appomatuck, Manakin, members of Powhattan Confederacy. Bacon leads brief rebellion against English Crown authority when his English military murderer commission is rescinded because of excessive brutalities. 1675-76: Metacom's (King Phillip's) War against the New England Confederation of colonies - Wampanoag, later joined by Abenaki, Nipmucs and Narragansetts. Mohawks stay neutral; Mohegans, Pequots, Niantics, Masachusetts tribes back the English. Metacom loses. English government executes Metacom in 1676, nails body parts to town hall, sells wife, children, followers to plantation slavery. 1675: The population of New France is almost 8,000. 1676: West Country merchants attempt to enforce restrictions on settlement in Newfoundland. 1678-79: Daniel Greysolon Duluth of France explores Great Lakes and negotiates treaties between the warring Ojibwa and Sioux. 1682: Robert Cavelier, sieur de la Salle reaches the mouth of the Mississippi and claims the entire Mississippi Valley for France, naming the area Louisiana. 1682: William Penn's treaty with the Delaware begins a period of friendly relations between the Quakers and Indians. 1683: After the death of Louis XIV's brilliant minister, J. B. Colbert, France's interest in the colonies wanes. c. 1685: In North America, the English and French vie for control. 1685: LaSalle lands at Matagorda Bay, builds Fort St. Louis. 1686: Mackinac region, Rooseboom and McGregor open trade but are seized by the French. 1686: De Troyes and D'Iberville capture three English posts on James Bay (June-July). 1686: King James II and Louis XIV sign neutrality pact handing forts of St. John's and Port Royal back to the French. 1689-1697: King William's War (American counterpart of the War of the Grand Alliance in Europe) -- Abenakis, Penobscot, other New England tribes, attacked by English and their Iroquois allies. This is the first of the French-English wars for control of North America, continuing to 1763. During these wars, the Iroquois League generally sides with the English, and the Algonquian tribes with the French. 1689: Nicolas Perrot formally claims upper Mississippi region for France. 1689: The Iroquois kill many French settlers at Lachine. 1690: Sent by Massachusetts, Sir William Phips captures Port Royal (May 11). Frontenac repels Phips' attack on Quebec (October). These events are part of what is sometimes called King William's War. 1696-97: European fur market collapses as fashion temporarily changes, leading to an increase in colonist settlers wanting permanent land to clear and farm. 1697: After almost a decade of guerrilla warfare, the Peace of Ryswick merely confirms the status quo, even returning Acadia, captured by the English, to the French. England and France make temporary peace in 1697 (Treaty of Ryswick). French continue to pressure Iroquois, who eventually agree to (but don't hold) neutrality in the English-French conflicts. 1693 group of Maritimes Tribal treaties linked-to above comes from this war. 1700: By now, it is clear that New France is not going to be self-sufficient. 1700: Population of Acadia is 1,400. 1701: War of the Spanish Succession begins in Europe; spreads to North America (Queen Anne's War) in 1702. 1702-1713: Queen Anne's War -- Maine Abenakis and Iroquois from Quebec (Caughnawaga) attack the English colonists on behalf of the French, but lose. All the New England (not Nova Scotia) treaties from the second group next to the map comes from this war. The European nations negotiated their settlement at the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); Louis XIV ceded Hudson's Bay and Acadia (Nova Scotia, and coastal and islands north of the St. Lawrence, parts of New France) to England. 1702-13: The short-lived Peace of Ryswick collapses with the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession, which erupts in the colonies as Queen Anne's War. It ends with France losing territory in Canada to Britain. 1702 Having begun in Europe in 1701, The War of the Spanish Succession spreads to North America (Queen Anne's War) in Acadia and New England. 1793 1704: French forces destroy the English settlement at Bonavista, Newfoundland. 1705 1706 1707: Port Royal is attacked twice by the English from Massachusetts. 1708 1709 In New France, slavery becomes legal. 1710: The English recapture Acadia, this time permanently, and rename it Nova Scotia. 1710 The English take Port Royal and name it Annapolis Royal 1710 - Three Mohawk chiefs and one Mahican are received in Queen Anne's court in England as the Four Kings of the New World. 1710 Francis Nicholson captures Port Royal for England. 1711-13 - Tuscarora War on North Carolina frontier fought between British settlers and Tuscarora Indians. Remnants of this Iroquoian tribe migrate north 1711-13: Turcarora War (North Carolina) -- Under the English Col. John Barnwell, then Col. James Moore, the Tuscarora Nation was repeatedly attacked, its chiefs tortured, its people sold (10 pounds sterling each) into slavery. The survivors fled northward and settled among the Haudenosee (Iroquois) 5 Nations. 1712-34 - Fox resistance against the French in the Great Lakes area. 1713: The Treaty of Utrecht. The French cede Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay region. They retain Cape Breton and the Ile Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island). 1713 Treaty of Utrecht cedes French Acadia, Newfoundland, Hudson Bay and the "country of the Iroquois" to England 1713 The Treaty of Utrecht ends Queen Anne's War, confirming British possession of Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and Acadia (except l'Ile- Royale [Cape Breton Island]). France starts building Fort Louisbourg near the eastern tip of l'Ile-Royale. 1714 1715 1716 1717 1718 1719 Construction of Louisbourg Fortress by the French begins on Ile Royale (Cape Breton Island) 1720-60 - The Chickasaw fight the French and the Choctaw in the Southeast. ca.1720: French forts along the Mississippi River spread northward from New Orleans. 1720: To compensate for their loss, the French build a fortress at Louisbourg on the southeast tip of Cape Breton. 1720 Lord Baltimore sponsors expedition to bring settlers to Newfoundland 1721: 800 Acadians take oath of allegiance to the French 1722: Haudenosee League admits Tuscarora as 6th Nation The refugee band was accepted according to the terms of the League Constitution. No other Native Nations had such a provision as this, other alliances and "confederations" were all temporary and informal. 1722: the Tuscarora become the sixth tribe of the Iroquois Confederacy. 1723 1724 1725-1729 - First Arctic expedition of Vitas Bering. 1725 - Peter the Great sends Vitus Bering to explore the North Pacific. 1726 1727 1728 - Vitus Bering sails through the Bering Strait. 1729: Natchez fight French -- at Fort Rosalie, when French governor Sieur Chepart tells them they must abandon the Temple Mound Great Village and move (as laborers) to his plantation. After the initial Indian successes, French lead two counter-invasions out of New Orleans, capturing and selling into plantation slavery most of the tribe and its smaller allies. A few bands live in hiding along the Mississippi River and continue their resistance. 1729 - French governor of Louisiana, wanting the site for a plantation, orders the Natchez to vacate their capital. The furious Natchez kill 200 Frenchmen at Fort Rosalie in response; the French answer by annihilating the Natchez. 1730s: The Mississauga drive the Seneca Iroquois south of Lake Erie. 1730 - Mirror sextant invented - Seven Cherokee chiefs visit London and form an alliance, The Articles of Agreement, with King George II. 1731 1731-43: The La Verendrye family organize expeditions beyond Lake Winnipeg and direct fur trade toward the east. 1732 1733 - Bering's second expedition, with George Wilhelm Steller aboard, the first naturalist to visit Alaska. 1734: Jemeraye establishes Fort Maurepas on Lake Winnipeg, third of the Verendry posts (St. Pierre on Rainy reactivated, St. Charles on Lake of the Woods.) 1734 - A Montreal slave named Marie-Joseph Angelique learns that she is to be sold to someone else. In an attempt to escape, she sets a fire in her mistress's house. The fire can not be contained, causing damage to half of Montreal. She is caught, tortured and hanged, bringing attention to the conditions of the slaves. 1735 1736 1737 1738 - Smallpox strikes the Cherokee in the Southeast, killing almost half the population. Smallpox also reaches tribes in western Canada. 1739 1740s: The Mandan Indians west of the Great Lakes begin to trade in horses descended from those brought to Texas by the Spanish. Itinerant Assiniboine Indians bring them from Mandan settlements to their own territories southwest of Lake Winnipeg. 1740-1748: The War of the Austrian Succession, with the American counterpart King George's War. 1741 - Vitus Bering, in service of Russia, reaches Alaska; Russians soon trade with natives for sea otter pelts. 1741 - Russians Vitus Bering and Aleksi Cherikov 'discover' Alaska and bring back fur skins (Bering shipwrecked on return and died); the Fur Rush is on. The lives of early Alaskans remained basically unchanged for thousands of years, until Russian sailors, led by Danish explorer Vitus Bering, sighted Alaska's mainland in 1741. The Russians were soon followed by British, Spanish, and American adventurers. But it was the Russians who stayed to trade for the pelts of sea otters and other fur-bearing animals, interjecting their own culture and staking a strong claim on Alaska. Once the fur trade declined, however, the Russians lost interest in this beautiful though largely unexplored land. 1741 - Alexei Chirikof, with Bering expedition, sights land on July 15; the Europeans had found Alaska. 1742 - First scientific report on the North Pacific fur seal. 1743 - Concentrated hunting of sea otter by Russia begins. 1744 France declares war on England (March 15) 1744, Treaty of Lancaster (English-Iroquois). 1744 Having begun in Europe in 1770, The War of the Austrian Succession spreads to North America (King George's War). 1745 Louisbourg surrenders to English after six-week seige (June 17) 1745: English forces take Louisbourg and make new conquests from the French in the West Indies. 1745: Massachusetts Governor William Shirley takes the French fortress of Louisbourg. 1745: Battle of Culloden. 1746 - Typhoid fever epidemic breaks out among the Micmac of Nova Scotia. 1746 Louisbourg and l'Ile-Royale are returned to France by the Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle. 1747 1748: Louisbourg is returned to France by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle returns Ile Royale (Cape Breton) and Ile Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) to French 1748: Treaty of Logstown (English with Shawnee, Delware, Wyandot). English later base their claim to the whole Great Lakes and midwest (or Old Northwest as it was later called) on these two treaties. 1749: Halifax, capital of Nova Scotia, is founded. 1749: Halifax is founded by British to counter French presence at Louisbourg. 1749 Britain founds Halifax to counter the French presence at Louisbourg. c. 1750: The Ojibwa begin to emerge as a distinct tribal amalgamation of smaller independent bands. German immigrants begin to arrive in numbers at Halifax. 1750's: HBC Saskatchewan River region, reached by trade drummers sent out with goods to tempt the Indians to York. 1750: Hidatsa villages, site of ancient trading fair, now with both French and Hudsons Bay representatives present each summer. 1751: Fort La Jonquierre built by Saint-Pierre for Verendryes, at foot of Canadian Rockies. 1752-59: The 7 Years' War, King George's War: -- English (in New Canada) and French (in New France) duke it out, with Indian allies on each side. Both sides build forts or fortify trading posts in Indian country on the above map. Choctaw, Tuscarora, Yamasee, Cherokee, some Creeks, fight against English; Mohawks, Chicasaw fight for English against French. 1752: French kill Miami chief, fortify the Ohio Valley region with forts from Lake Erie to to the forks of the Ohio River 1752: Canada's first newspaper, the weekly Halifax Gazette, appears (March 23). 1753 1754: Beginning of the French and Indian War in America, though not officially declared for another two years. 1754 - Anthony Henday travels west from Hudson Bay onto Plains, meets natives on horseback and sees Rocky Mountains. 1754 French and Indian War begins in North America; becomes Seven Years' War when fighting spreads to Europe (1756) 1754: HBC Anthony Hendry to upper South Saskatchewan, to Ft. La Jonquierre region with presents and trade goods. 1754: France sends 3,000 regulars to Canada. Fort Duquesne is built. Benjamin Franklin says the British Colonies will have no peace while France holds Canada. Ango-French competition in the Ohio Valley sparks conflict. 1754: George Washington's troops at Fort Duquesne open the French and Indian War, counterpart of the Seven Years' War in Europe. 1754, Tuesday May 28: Washington, with a few men, attacks Jumonville, with thirty followers, near the confluence of the Monongahela and Ohio Rivers. Jumonville and nine of his command are killed. The rest are taken prisoners. The French allege that, before firing began, Jumonville signaled that he had a proposal to make; but Washington says that he observed no signal, though at the head of his men. 1754-63 - French and Indian War (the colonial phase of Europe's Seven Years War). 1755-75 - William Johnson, British superintendent of Indian affairs in the northern colonies, persuades the Iroquois League to break its neutrality and side with England against France. 1755, Monday June 16: Fort Beausejour, garrisoned by 400 Frenchmen, is surrendered to Col. Winslow, of Massachusetts, commanding 2,300, of whom 300 are regulars. 1755, July: Seven British Colonial Governors form a Treaty with the Iroquois, and project a federal union for carrying on war, under a presidnet to be named by the King. 1755, Tuesday July 15: Announcement, in England, of the capture of French troops on their way to Canada. 1755, Monday September 8: Baron Dieskay, with 1,500 French and Indian troops, overcomes Col. Williams, with 1,400 English and Indians, near Fort George. Immediatly afterwards, the French attack Col. Johnson's force, barricaded at Fort George, but are repelled, with heavy loss. The two commanders are wounded, and the two opposing Indian chiefs are killed. Baron Dieskay is captured by the English, who dress his wounds and earn his life-long gratitude by their kindness. 1755: For his success at Fort George, Col. Johnson is made a baronet, with a grant of 5,000 pounds. 1755: The British presume that their Acadian subjets are disloyal and urged by New Englanders fearing northern invasion, deport the Acadians, French inhabitants, from Nova Scotia. 1755 Expulsion of the Acadians begins 1755, English Explusion of the French Acadians -- who lived and intermarried with Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Miq'maks (many of whom were also taken). Forcibly loaded into ships and deposited randomly along the southern (now American) coasts, many (probably 1/3 to 1/2) died. Some are ancestors of the Cajuns of Louisiana, and a few made their ways back home. Acadians were idealists, hostile to King and Church authority, who lived in peace with the Miq'maks. Neither the French rulers nor the English wanted them. 1755 Britain scatters the Nova Scotia Acadians throughout other North American colonies. 1756: France sends two battalions to Canada, with provisions, and 1,300,000 livres, in specie, which has the effect of depreciating the paper currency by 25 per cent. 1756, March: A Canadian force of 300 captures Fort Bull, between Schenectady and Oswego, and puts the garrison to the sword. 1756, May: Montcalm reaches Quebec with 1,400 soldiers. 1756: The Canadians, suffering from small pox and famine, are burthened with the support of their Indian allies. 1756, Saturday August 14: Though opposed to attacking any British fort, Montcalm, a the head of 3,100 regulars, Canadians and Indians, captures Fort Oswego, - a success attributable, mainly, to his intercepting a message to General Webb, commanding 2,000 men in the vicinity. Colonel Mercer is killed. The garrison (1,780) and about 100 women and children are taken prisoners. 1756 The Marquis de Montcalm assumes a troubled command of French troops in North America. (The Seven Year's War between Britain and France begins in Europe). 1757: Thursday March 17 - Tuesday March 22: In four nights 1,500 French Canadians and Indians destroy the out-works of Fort William-Henry. 1757, Saturday July 30: Seven thousand men are collected to attack Fort William Henry. 1757, Tuesday August 9: The Fort, garrisoned by 2,200, capitulates. Violating the terms of capitulation, Indians kill, or recature, many of the garrison, whereupon Montcalm exclaims: "Kill me, but spare the English who are under my protection." 1757: Of 5,000 French soldiers expected, but 1,500 reach Canada. 1757, December: The troops, in Canada, complain of being fed on horse-flesh and too little bread. 1758: A British expedition reconquers Louisbourg. 1758, Saturday July 8: General Abercrombie, with 15,390 men, attacks 3,600 French and Canadian troops entrenched and barricaded at Ticonderoga. The British and Colonial forces are repulsed and lose 2,000 killed and wounded. 1758, Wednesday July 27: After a long siege, the British, under Wolfe, capture Louis burg, defended by about 5,637. 1758, Friday August 25: Colonel Bradstreet, with nearly 3,000 men, mostly colonists, takes and burns Fort Frontenac (Kingston). 1758, Thursday September 14: Major Grant, with 800 Highlanders and some Virginians, is defeated by French and Indians, from Fort Duquesne, under Aubry. 1758, Saturday November 25: The garrison of Fort Duquesne (500) set it on fire and escape from Washington, who has twice failed to take the place. He names it Pittsburg, in honor of the Prime Minister. 1758: English begin capturing French fortifications, New France and Ohio Valley, the war started going their way decisively this year. 1758 Generals Jeffrey Amherst and James Wolfe take Louisbourg. 1759, Tuesday May 22: A British fleet approaches Quebec. 1759, Thursday June 28: French fire-ships, intended to burn the British fleet, at Quebec, are taken ashore by British sailors. 1759, Thursday July 26: Carillon (Fort Ticonderoga) is abandoned by the French. 1759, August 8-9: British guns, on Point Levi, fire the lower town of Quebec. 1759, Thursday September 13: Wolfe lands a force at Fuller's Cove, between 1 and 2 in the morning. They climb to the Plains of Abraham. At 6 a.m., Montcalm is informed that the British have accomplished what he deemed impossible; but discredits the report. With 4,500, he fights about an equal number; but his men cannot resist bayonets. Each leader receives a mortal wound. Wolfe asks an officer to support him so that his followers may not be discouraged by his fall. An historian says of Wolfe: "He crowded into a few hours actions that would have given lustre to length of life; and, filling his day with greatness, completed it before its noon." Learning that he had but a few hours to live, Montcalm says: "So much the better; I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." Turning to de Ramsay he says: "To your keeping I commend the honor of France; as for me, I shall pass the night with God and prepare myself for death." 1759, Friday September 14: Montcalm dies in the Castle of St. Louis. 1759, Monday September 17: Capitulation of Quebec. 1759, Tuesday September 18: The British take possession of Quebec. 1759: Experienced French General Montcalm (1712-59) and the impulsive young British Brig. Gen. James Wolfe (1729-59) die on the Plains of Abraham. The British Army wins against the French, and so gains Quebec. 1759 British troops under Wolfe defeat French forces under Montcalm at Quebec; both generals are killed; Quebec falls 1759: Proclamation issued by Governor of Nova Scotia invites New Englanders to settle there. 1759 English win most of Canada -- English commander Wolfe burns countryside, beseiges Quebec; defeats French commander Montcalm. Articles of Capitulation (surrender) signed 1759 at Quebec read "The savages or allies of his Most Christian Majesty shall be maintained in the lands they inhabit if they choose to remain there; they shall not be molested on any pretense whatsoever." 1759 Wolfe takes Quebec by defeating Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham (Sept. 13), but both generals are killed. 1759: New France captured by English. 1760, Sunday April 20: Seven thousand French troops start to recapture Quebec. 1760, Monday April 28: Murray's 7,714 troops retire to the Citadel, after fighting the Canadians outside the walls of Quebec. The French prepare to besiege. 1760, Friday May 9: The belligerents, of each nationality, expect a fleet bringing troops and supplies. An approaching frigate proves to be British. 1760, Thursday May 15: Two more British war-ships arrive. The British win a naval battle near Quebec. 1760, Saturday May 17: The French raise the siege of Quebec. 1760, Saturday September 6: General Amherst invests Montreal. 1760, September 6-7: A council of war, at Montreal, favors capitulation. 1760, Monday September 8: Amherst's, Murray's, and Haviland's commands, around Montreal, are about 17,000. The articles of capitulation are agreeable to the French, except that they do not concede "all the honors of war" or "perpetual neutrality of Canadians." De Levis threatens to retire to St. Helen's Island and fight to the last; but the Governor orders him to disarm. The British take possession of Montreal. 1760: Most of Canada comes under British control after the surrender of Montreal. This ends the need for British garrisons to defend the American colonies. 1760 Louisbourg Fortress demolished by the British 1760: Fall of Montreal and surrender of Great Lakes and Ohio Valley French forts to English. Lord Jeffrey Amherst starts a "get tough with Indians" policy, including the first biological warfare --smallpox-infested blankets (see documents link below). Amherst granted some Seneca (originally his allies) lands to his officers. Odawa chief Pontiac (and the Delaware Prophet) organize a resistance preaching return to traditional Indian customs. The 1761 draft Proclamation (to English governors, (linked-to above) and the Royal Proclamation (with a large Indian country in what's now the U.S. Great Lakes/Midwest) were part of the English Crown's attempt to mollify the Indians. Neither proclamation of undisturbed Indian lands was followed by settlers or the Crown. 1760 The British Conquest. General James Murray is appointed first British military governor of Quebec. 1761-66 - Aleut people revolt against Russian abuses in Alaska. 1761, Wednesday July 29: The British terms of peace are so hard that Choiseul declares: "I am as indifferent to peace as Pitt can be. I freely admit the King's desire for peace, and his Majesty may sign such a treaty, but my hand shall never be set to it." 1761, Tuesday October 6: The King offers Pitt the governorship of Canada, with 5,000 pounds per annum, but, instead, makes his wife a peeress; and 13,000 pounds per annum is granted to the survivor of three of his family. 1761: Canada under Martial law. 1762, Wednesday November 3: According to the preliminaries of peace, signed at Fontainebleau, England is to have, with certain West Indies, Florida, Louisiana, to the Mississippi (without New Orleans), Canada, Acadia, Capre Breton and its dependencies, and the fisheries, subject to certain French interests. Spain is to have New Orleans and Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, with an undetermined Western boundary. 1763-1820 The Conquest: French defeated. British take over and successfully expand fur trade from Montreal (NorthWest Company). Lots of money invested in Montreal. 1763-64 - Pontiac's Rebellion threatens British control of the Great Lakes region before being put down. 1763-66: Pontiac's Rebellion, an American Indian revolt, is suppressed by the English in Canada. Ottawa Chief Pontiac (c. 1720-69) leads an Indian uprising, 1763, but the British defeat the Indians. 1763, Thursday February 10: By the treaty of Paris, France cedes to Britain, Canada and all the Laurentian Islands, except St. Pierre and Miquelon. 1763, April 11: Britain allows Canadians the free exercise of their religion. 1763, December 7: Canadians are required to swear fealty. 1763 - Proclamation by King George III bans settlements west of the Appalachians and establishes a protected Indian Country there. White settlers ignore the boundary line - Indian raids in Pennsylvania lead to the Paxton Riots - Peaceful Conestoga Mission Indians are massacred by settlers. 1763 - Treaty of Paris officially ends French and Indian Wars and gives Great Britain control of Canada; France cedes New France to England and Louisiana to Spain. 1763: France cedes Canada to England. The Treaty of Paris confirms English supremacy in Canada and India. 1763 Treaty of Paris gives Canada (New France and Acadia) to England 1763: Treaty of Paris ends French-English conflict -- which included the European 7 Years War. France abandons claims to Rupert's Land, cedes all territory east of Mississippi, and New France, to England. France cedes West Louisiana to Spain, its ally (who lost Florida to England). 1763: Pontiac fails to take Detroit, because of informers alerting the English to his plans; as winter approaches, his army of Indians lost faith in victory, and returned to their homes. Aware that England and France had ended both their European and American wars, Pontiac tried to start a second uprising, later counseled peace, and was killed in 1769 in Illinois by a Peoria Indian who was probably an assassin hired by the English. 1763 France cedes its North American possessions to Britain by the Treaty of Paris. A royal proclamation imposes British institutions on Quebec (Oct.). Western Cree and Assiniboine traders who had benefited from agreements with the French begin to lose profits to the British. 1763: The prophetic say that the acquisition fo Canada will cost England her colonies. "No longer requiring protection, they will be asked to support burdens, which their necessities have brought upon the mother country, and will answer by striking off all dependence." 1764-65: The Sugar Act and Stamp Act, by which Britain aims to recover revenue from the American colonies, arouses local opposition. 1764: The Sugar Act is passed. 1764 Murray becomes civil governor of Quebec, but his attempts to appease French Canadians are disliked by British merchants. 1764: Canada is divided into two chief judicial districs (Quebec and Montreal). Martial law, in Canada, terminates. 1765: The Stamp Act increases discontent. A Stamp Act Congress meets to protest the Act. 1765 - Reserve system in Canada begins with the provision of a tract of land for the Maliseet tribe. 1766: The Stamp Act is repealed. 1767 1768 Guy Carleton succeeds Murray as governor of Quebec. 1769: The American colonies begin their westward expansion, settling Tennessee. 1769: Prince Edward Island becomes a separate colony from Nova Scotia. 1769 Prince Edward Island becomes a separate colony 1769: Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, is killed by a Kaskaskia Indian in Illinois. 1770 - David Thompson born in London - William Wordsworth born in Cockermouth, England. 1770, March 5 : British troops in Boston fire on civilians, and five die in the Boston Massacre. 1771 - Captain James Cook completes his first voyage around the world. 1772 - Samuel Hearne explores Coppermine River to Arctic Ocean. 1772: HBC Mathey Cocking, to Blackfeet country west of Eagle Hills. 1772 The Hudson's Bay Company opens Cumberland House on the Saskatchewan. 1772: Cook and Vancouver explore the N.W. coast of America. 1773: The Boston Tea Party protests the Tea Act. (Dec 16) 1773, Dec: Prominent French Canadians petition the King to restore their ancient laws and accord them the rights of British subjects, reminding him that five-sixths of the seigniories belong to Frenchmen. They represent that the Labrador Coast and fisheries, now alienated to Newfoundland, should revert to Canada. They prefer a Legislative Council, nominated by the King, because less expensive than an Elective Assembly. Lord Dartmouth promises Canadians just and considerate treatment respecting their religion. 1773: Montreal Ft. La Traite, on Churchill River, by Frobisher to cut into HBC's trade. 1774, Sep 4: Delegates from twelve colonies discuss measures for common safety, at Philadelphia. Canada and Georgia are not represented, though invited. Vermont, not being organized, is not invited. 1774: Lord Dunmore's War fought in Virginia between settlers and Shawnees. 1774: The first Continental Congress meets. 1774: The Quebec Act ensures the loyaly of the seigneurs and the clergy to the new regime by guaranteeing the traditional language, civil law, and faith of the subjects. 1774 Quebec Act guarantees religious freedom for Roman Catholic colonists 1774 Carleton's recommendations are instituted in the Quebec Act, which introduces British criminal law but retains French civil law and guarantees religious freedom for Roman Catholics. The Act's geographical claims were so great that it helped precipitate the American Revolution. 1774 - Juan Perez ordered by Spain to explore west coast; discovers Prince of Wales Island, Dixon Sound. 1774 Quebec Act: enacted by British government in respect to conquered New France Allowed French language and Catholic religion --though Catholics excluded from Administration and politics 1775-83: Demands by the American colonists that they be represented in the English Parliament lead to the American Revolution. 1775: Apr 19: The Revolutionary War begins, at Lexington. 1775, May 1: A bust of George III is found, in Montreal, adorned with beads, cross, and mitre, with the words "Pope of Canada: Sot of England." A reward of 500 guineas does not lead to apprehension of the culprit. 1775, May 10: Ethan Allan takes Fort Ticonderoga. 1775, 9 Jun: Martial law is proclaimed in Canada. 1775, Aug 21: Generals Schuyler and Montgomery, with 1,000 Americans come to Canada, and invite the inhabitants to rebel. 1775, Sep 17: Montgomery besieges St. Johns. 1775, Sep 25: Attempting to take Montreal, Ethan Allan and many of his 150 followers are captured, at Longue Pointe, and are sent to England. 1775, Oct 18: The Americans capture Chambly. 1775, Nov 3: Hindered by Colonel Warner, of Vermont, Governor Carleton cannot relieve St. Johns, which surrenders to Montgomery. 1775, Nov 3: Invaders, under Arnold, reach the Chaudiere, almost perishing, after 52 days in the woods, from the Kennebec. 1775, Nov 12: General Montgomery tells Montrealers that, being defenceless, they cannot stipulate terms; but promises to respect personal rights. He demands the keys of public stores, and appoints 9 a.m. tomorrow for the army's entrance, by the Recollet gate. 1775, Nov 13: The invaders appropriate royal stores. 1775 - Daniel Boone leads party of settlers into Kentucky. 1775: Lexington and Concord open the Revolution. 1775 - Cook reaches King Island, Norton Sound, Unalaska. 1775: American troops capture Montreal, but, failiny to take Quebec City or elicit local support, soon withdraw. 1775 The American Revolution begins. Americans under Richard Montgomery capture Montreal (Nov. 13) and attack Quebec (Dec. 31), where Montgomery is killed. 1776-77 - Capt. James Cook of England explores the Pacific Northwest. 1776 US Revolutionary war. United Empire Loyalists move to Upper Canada and settle (lumbering, farming starts). 1776, Apr 29: Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Chase and Rev. Charles Carroll, a Jesuit, urge Canadians to send delegates to Congress, promising toleration. Franklin brings a printer and press, for a newspaper, to mould public opinion. Canadians regard Franklin as an enemy, and the priests remind Father Carroll that, unlike some of the Provinces, Britain tolerates the Romish Church. 1776, May 6: As a British fleet is in sight, the Continental Army, before Quebec, weakened by disease, retires from a superior enemy, who await reinforcements, behind strong walls. 1776, Jun 8: Attempting to surprise Three Rivers, General Thompson, with 200 of 1,800 Americans, is taken prisoner. 1776, Jun 16: Arnold's force has retreated from Montreal. 1776, Jun 18: General Burgoyne finds that the Continental Army has evacuated St. Johns. 1776, July 4: The United States declare Independence. The eleventh Article of "Confederation and Perpetual Union" provides that: "Canada, according to this Confederation, and joining in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, and entitled to, all the advantages of this Union; but no other Colony shall be admitted to the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine States." 1776, Oct 11: The British are victorious on Lake Champlain. 1776, Oct 13: On Lake Champlain, Arnold runs part of his fleet ashore, to avoid capture. The Jesuits' College, at Quebec, converted into barracks. 1776: The American colonies declare their independence. The Declaration of Independence is signed July 4, 1776. 1776: /Common Sense/ by Thomas Paine (1737-1809) appears. 1776 American Revolution begins 1776 Quebec withstands American siege 1776 Under Carleton, Quebec withstands an American siege until the appearance of a British fleet (May 6). Carleton is later knighted. 1777, Jul 4: Near Fort Ticonderoga, General Burgoyne offers condonement if colonists lay down their arms. 1777, Sep 19: General Burgoyne's Indian and French allies desert at the battle of Stillwater. 1777, Oct 16: Articles of Capitulation of 5,782 British, under Burgoyne are written. 1777, Oct 17: Though aware of approaching relief, Burgoyne, having promised to capitulate, and fearing annihilation by a threatened attack, signs the capitulation. During its first session the Canadian Council passes sixteen ordinances, adopts English Commercial law, and constitutes itself a Court of Appeal, with final resort to the Privy Council in England. In the House of Lords, Lord Camden declares: "If I were an American, I should resist to the last such manifest exertions of tyranny, violence and injustice." 1777 - David Thompson enters Grey Coat School 1778 - British Captain James Cook explores Alaskan coast, seeking Northwest Passage back to the Atlantic. On the way back to England his crew almost mutinied, wanting to go back to Alaska, after stopping in China and discovering how much sea otter pelts were worth. 1778: The American colonies ally with France. 1778: The English overrun the southern states, but are weakened by a French blockade of shipping. 1778 Captain James Cook anchors in Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island 1778 - Spinning mule invented to spin multiple strands of yarn - James Cook trades for sea otter pelts in Nootka Sound - First treaty between the United States and an Indian nation is negotiated with the Delaware; they are offered the prospect of statehood - British and Iroquois forces attack and massacre American settlers in western New York and Pennsylvania. 1778 On the last of three voyages to the west coast, Captain James Cook travels as far north as the Bering Strait and claims Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island for the British (Mar. 29-Apr.26). 1779: At a Parliamentary investigation, General Burgoyne charges failure to the Canadian forces and to St. Luc, commander of the indians. 1779: A retaliatory U.S. campaign destroys Indian towns and crops, breaking the Iroquois League's power. 1779: The American colonies ally with Spain. 1779 - James Cook killed by Hawaiian natives, cutting short his search for Northwest Passage. 1780-1800 - Smallpox and measles decimate Indians in Texas and New Mexico. 1780, Mar 30: Col. Beverly Robinson informs Ethan Allan that, when British authority is re-established, Vermont may expect a separate government. From refusal of admission as a State, Vermont apprehends worse than British oppression. 1781, Feb 2: Ethan Allan receives a further proposal from Col. Robinson; but sends both to Congress, with a request for the recognition of Vermong. Premising loyalty to Congress, he maintains that Vermont may properly treat with Great Britain, to prevent being subjected to another State, by the authority of a Government which Vermonters have helped to establish. 1781, April: Ira Allen is sent to Canada to arrange an exchange of prisoners. 1781, May 1: Receiving proposals for Vermont's independnece, Col. Ira Allen temporizes to prevent invasion and enable the farmers to sow seed for another crop. 1781, Aug 20: As a condition of Vermont's admission to the Union, Congress fixes boundaries which offend both Vermont and New York. General Washington asks Governor Chittendeu whether Vermont chooses to be a Province or in the Union. 1781, Sep: British proposals to Vermont include a Legislature of two branches. 1781, Oct 19: Vermond declines Congress' terms. 1781, Nov 14: Governor Chittenden answers General Washington that, notwithstanding Vermont's interest in the common cause, the people would rather join British Canadians than be subject to New York. 1781, Dec 18: Troops sent from New York, to coerce New Hampshire grantees, learn that they will defend their rights. 1781: American independence is assured by the British surrender at Yorktown. Gen. George Washington leads the Colonial army against the British. 1781: By the Articles of Confederation, Congress controls the western lands. 1782-83: A small pox epidemic hits the Sanpoil of Washington 1782: Montreal Upper Yellowstone, on old Indian trail along east slope of the mountains, challenging Spanish trade goods. 1782, Jan 1: Threatened by three hostile forces, Vermont is advised by Gen. Washington, a skilled surveyor, to limit jurisdiction to undisputed territory. 1782, Feb 22: Vermont accepts the prescribed delimination. 1782, Mar 1: It is proposed, in Congress, to treat Vermont as hostile, failing submission to the terms of 20th August, 1781, and to divide it between New York and New Hampshire, along the ridge of the Green Mountains; and that the Commander-in-chief employ the Congressional forces to further this resolution. 1782: In the course of this year John Molson, the future pioneer of Canadian steam navigation, arrives in Canada. 1782: Councillor Finlay proposes to establish English schools in Canadian parishes, and to prohibit using the French language in the Law Courts after a certain time. 1783 - North West Fur Company established in Montreal. 1783: American independence is formally recognized at the Treaty of Paris. 1783: The success of the rebellious 13 American colonies leaves the British with the poorest remnants of their New World empire and the determination to prevent a second revolution. However, they have to accommodate the roughly 50.000 refugees from the American Revolution who settle in Nova Scotia and the upper St. Lawrence. There these United Empire Loyalists soon begin to agitate for the political and property rights they had previously enjoyed. 1783: Treaty of Versailles gives Americans fishing rights off Newfoundland, but not to dry or cure fish on land. 1783 - More than 5,000 Blacks leave the United States to live in the Maritimes, Quebec and Ontario. Having sided with the british during the American War of Independence, they come to Canada as United Empire Loyalists, some as free men and some as slaves. Although promised land by the British, they receive only varying amounts of poor-quality land, and, in fact, some receive none at all. 1783 - In Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia, Rose Fortune becomes Canada's first policewoman. 1783 In Montreal and Grand Portage (in present-day Minnesota), the North West Company is formed by a group of trading partners. The American revolutionary war ends. The border between Canada and the U.S. is accepted from the Atlantic Ocean to Lake of the Wood. In the area around the mouth of the St. John River, those who fled the thirteen American colonies by 1783 are called United Empire Loyalists. Those who arrive after 1783 are called Late Loyalists. Pennsylvania Germans begin moving into southwestern Ontario. 1783, Jan 20: Preliminaries of peace are signed between Great Britain and the United States. Vermond delays entering the Union, because Congress is partial to New York, and because of the General Government's indebtedness, for which Vermont is not bound. United Empire Loyalists settle in Canada. The North-West Company is formed. 1784 - Grigorii Shelikov establishes first white settlement at Three Saints Bay, Kodiak. 1784 - David Thompson begins apprenticeship on Hudson Bay - Dr. Samuel Johnson dies in London - James Cook's journal of his last voyage published in London - North West Company is chartered in Montreal to compete in fur trade with the Hudson's Bay Company. 1784: In response to Loyalist demands, the Crown creates New Brunswick out of Nova Scotia. 1784-: NWC Built up Grand portage as a general summer rendezvous for all companies and free traders, drawing furs from as far as Oregon and the Artic Circle. 1784 - United Empire Loyalists arrive in Canada; New Brunswick becomes a separate colony to accommodate them. 1784 With the Loyalists swelling the population, the province of New Brunswick is created. 1785 - Introduction of Power loom in England for weaving cloth 1785: NWC Strengthened far west trade through such forts as Athabasca and English River. 1785 The city of Saint John, N.B. is incorporated. Fredericton opens a Provincial Academy of Arts and Sciences, the germ of the University of New Brunswick (1859). 1785: New Brunswick is separated from Nova Scotia The city of St. John is incorporated, by Royal Charter. Du Calvet proposes Canadian representation in the British Parliament, three members, each, for the Districts of Quebec and Montreal. To a proposed Elective Legislature, it is objected that French Canadians do not wish to change their customary laws, and that there are not enough fit men to compose a Legislature. 1786 New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland allowed to import goods from the United States 1786 - Gerassin Pribilof discovers the rookeries on the islands now know as the Pribilofs. 1787: HBC David Thompson wintered with Piegans on Bow River. 1787 - David Thompson winters with Piegans near Rocky Mountains 1787: Prince William Henry (future William IV) lands at Quebec. At an investigation into judicial abuses, it is stated that one judge takes wine to excess, before taking his seat on the Bench; and that another habitually disregards the pertinent French law and applies the law of England. 1788: Attorney-General Monk and Solicitor-General Williams are of opinion that, as the Jesuits have no civil existence as a Canadian corporation, their estates accrue to the Crown. Ontario is divided into five districts, under English law. 1789-93 - Alexander Mackenzie of Canada, seeking northern river route to the Pacific, travels to the Arctic Ocean; on second journey he crosses continent by land, making contact with many tribes. 1789 Alexander Mackenzie journeys to the Beaufort Sea, following what would later be named the Mackenzie River 1789 - French Revolution begins - David Thompson learns surveying from Philip Turnor. 1789 At the behest of the North West Company, Alexander Mackenzie journeys to the Beaufort Sea, following what would later be named the Mackenzie River. 1789: Lord Grenville proposes that lands in Upper Canada be held in free and common soccage, and that the tenure of Lower Canadian lands be optional with the inhabitants. 1790 - British Captain George Vancouver begins his three-year survey of northwest coast of North America - Spain signs the Nootka Convention, ceding the Pacific Northwest to England and the United States. 1790, Oct 7: New York consents to Vermont's admission to the Union, with cessation of New York's jurisdiction, in the disputed territory. Lower Canada is divided into three districts, instead of two. 1791-95 - British Captain George Vancouver explores Northwest Coast exhaustively with two ships, but finds no Northwest Passage. 1791: Edmund Burke supports the proposed constitution for Canada, saying that: "To attempt to amalgamate two populations, composed of races of men diverse in language, laws and habitudes, is a complete absurdity. Let the proposed constitution be founded on man's nature, the only solid basis for an enduring government. Fox declares that England can retain Canada "through the good will of the Canadians, alone." Lord Grenville, denying that Canadian attachment to French jurisprudence is due to prejudice, says it is founded "on the noblest sentiments of the human breast." The Province is divided into Upper and Lower Canada. 1791 - George Vancouver leaves England to explore the coast; Alejandro Malaspina explores the northwest coast for Spain. 1791: In response to Loyalist demands, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divides Quebec into Lower Canada (mostly French) and Upper Canada (mostly English from America). In so doing, the Crown hopes to create a stable socity that is distinctly non-American. Although French-Canadians retain the privileges granted by the Quebec Act, the Anglican church receives preferred status. An Anglo-French colonial aristocracy of rich merchants, leading officials, and landholders is expected to work with the royal governors to ensure proper order. Legislative assemblies, although elected by propertied voters, have little power. The threat of revolution, it appears, has been banished. 1791 Constitutional Act divides Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada 1791 Constitutional Act: created Upper (Ontario) and Lower (Quebec) Canada 1792 - Catherine II grants a monopoly of furs in Alaska to Grigorii Shelikov. 1792 - Captain George Vancouver begins his explorations of the Pacific Coast. 1792 - A large number of the Black Loyalists in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia migrate to Sierra Leone in West Africa, mainly because the promises of land in Canada were not kept by the British. 1792 - American Captain Robert Gray discovers mouth of Columbia River - George Vancouver's Lieutenant William Broughton explores Columbia 100 miles upriver. 1792 George Vancouver begins exploration of the Pacific coast. 1792, May 7: Lower Canada is divided into 21 counties. 1792, Oct 15: The law of England is introduced in Upper Canada. 1792, Dec 20: A fortnightly mail is established between Canada and the United States. 1792, Dec: A bill to abolish slavery, in Lower Canada, does not pass. 1793 - Alexander Mackenzie reaches Pacific Ocean at Bella Coola - David Thompson surveys Muskrat Country west of Hudson Bay. 1793: HBC Brandon House established on Assiniboine, outpost for trade south and southwest to Missouri and Yellowstone. 1793 - Under the leadership of Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe, Upper Canada passes a law to stop people from bringing slaves into Upper Canada. The law also frees slaves who are 25-years old or more. With this act, Upper Canada becomes the first British territory to bring in legislation against slavery, although it does not abolish slavery entirely. 1793 Mackenzie reaches the Pacific at Dean Channel. 1793, May 9: First Parliament, of Lower Canada prorogued. 1793, Jul 9: Importation of slaves into Canada prohibited. Merchant vessels first navigate Lake Ontario. 1794 - Baranov builds first vessel in northwestern America at Voskres-senski on Kenai. 1794 - Jay Treaty establishes neutral commission to settle border disputes between United States and Canada; restores trade between the United States and British colonies of Canada; also guarantees Indians free movement across the border. 1794 Jay Treaty allows U.S. vessels into British ports of the West Indies; British agree to evacuate Ohio Valley forts. 1794: John Jay (1745-1829) negotiates Jay's Treaty to settle Anglo-American grievances. 1794 An American diplomat, John Jay, oversees the signing of Jay's Treaty (Nov. 19) between the U.S. and Britain. It promises British evacuation of the Ohio Valley forts and marks the beginning of international arbitration to settle boundary disputes. 1794, June: Close of a session of the Canadian Legislature, which began in November alst. Only six acts have been passed. Public accounts are first published for tax-payers' information. 1794 Jay Treaty: between US and Britain required that Britain abandon its western forts, established West as a free trade zone between the British dominions (Canada) and the US 1790's British create protective tariffs to encourage timber production for Navy after Napolean cuts off Baltic supply of tall trees and hardwood. First in New Brunswick then in Lower and Upper Canada. Montreal merchants expand transport to handle trade. 1795 - The first Russian Orthodox Church established in Kodiak. 1795: A road Act is passed, in Lower Canada, though opposed by country people, who fear areturn of the Statue labor of Governor Haldimand's time. A Canadian regiment is raised, but is disbanded, owing to Britain's unfavorable experience of training colonists to the use of arms. 1796 - About 600 Blacks from Jamaica are deported to Nova Scotia. Known as Maroons, they help rebuild the Halifax Citadel. In 1800, most of them leave for Sierra Leone, Africa. 1796 York becomes the capital of Upper Canada. 1797: An American, named McLane, being convicted of high treason, is haned on a gibbet, on the glacis of the fortifications, at Quebec. 1797 - David Thompson leaves Hudson's Bay Company to join North West Company. 1797 Having worked for the Hudson's Bay Company since 1784, David Thompson joins the North West Company as a surveyor and mapmaker, eventually surveying hundreds of thousands of square miles of western North America. 1797, Jan 18: A weekly mail is established between Canada and the United States. 1797, Jan 18: This notice appears in the Quebec /Gazette/: "A mail for the upper counties, comprehending Niagara and Detroit, will be closed, at this office, on Monday, 30th instant, at four o'clock in the evening, to be forwarded, from Montreal, by the annual winter express, on Thursday, 2nd February next." 1798 - David Thompson travels to Mandan villages and charts headwaters of Mississippi River - Napoleon invades Egypt - Horatio Nelson and British Navy defeat French at Battle of the Nile. 1798 A new fur-trading company is formed to compete with the North West Company. Confusingly called the New North West Company, it is nicknamed the XY Company from the way it differentiates its bales from those of its competitor. 1798: Indian chiefs, in Canada, claim from Vermont an equivalent of the greater part of Addison, Chittenden, Franklin and Grand Isle counties. They get their expenses to and fro. 1799 - David Thompson marries Charlotte Small - Alexander Mackenzie resigns from North West Company - George Vancouver's /Journeys to the North Pacific Ocean/ published in London - Handsome Lake, a Seneca chief, founds the Longhouse religion - Russian-American Fur Company chartered; launches aggressive policy in Aleutians and on Northwest Coast. 1799 American competition for West Indies trade kills Liverpool, Nova Scotia's merchant fleet. 1799 - Alexander Baranov establishes Russian post known today as Old Sitka; trade charter grants exclusive trading rights to the Russian American Company. 1799 - Aleksandr Baranov consolidates Russian possession of Alaska with fort and trading base at Sitka. 1799: Vermont answers Indian chiefs, in Canada, that their claims were extinguished by treaties of 1763 and 1783 between France, Great Britain and the United States. 1800 Spain cedes Louisiana back to France. 1800 - Alexander Mackenzie joins XY Fur Company 1801 - David Thompson attempts to cross Rocky Mountains - Alexander Mackenzie's /Voyages to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans/ published in London - Mackenzie knighted in honor of his explorations. Ship-building has become an important industry in Canada. 1802-20 - The Tlingit resist Russian incursions into their territory 1802 Mackenzie is knighted and becomes a member of the XY Company. 1802 - Indians massacre Russians at Old Sitka; only a few survive. 1803 - Thomas Jefferson completes Louisiana Purchase extending U.S. control west of the Mississippi River; federal plans to resettle Eastern tribes beyond the Mississippi soon begin - John Colter becomes the fourth man selected by William Clark to join the Lewis and Clark Expedition. 1803 The XY Company is reorganized under Mackenzie's name. 1804 - David Thompson works in Peace River country - Lewis and Clark start up Missouri River - Merger of the Northwest and XY Fur Companies. 1804 - 1,400 American ships are fishing off Labrador and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 1804 The XY Company is absorbed by the North West Company. The earliest Fraktur paintings appear in Lincoln county, Ontario. 1804 - Russians return to Sitka and attack Kiksadi fort on Indian River. Russians lose the battle, but Natives are forced to flee. Baranov re-establishes trading post. 1804: Locks are placed at Coteau, the Cascades and at Long Sault. 1805 - Admiral Nelson defeats French at Battle of Trafalgar - Lewis and Clark Reach Pacific Ocean. 1805 - Yurii Lisianski sails to Canton with the first Russian cargo of furs to be sent directly to China. 1805: Vermont passes an Act to establish the line between that State and Canada. 1806: Minor trouble arises after 1806 when a governor attempts to anglicize Lower Canada, but he is able to quell dissent if not to achieve his goal. 1806: Russian-American Fur Company collects otter pelts from Alaska to Spanish California - Mungo Park killed by natives on Niger River - On return trip John Colter is released from Lewis and Clark Expedition to join Forrest Hancock and Joseph Dickson (Dixon) to trap the Yellowstone River. 1806: Le canadien, a Quebec nationalist newspaper, is founded. 1807 Slavery is abolished in British colonies. 1807: The slave trade is abolished in the British Empire, although slavery continues in the colonies. 1807: The Embargo act aims at keeping US ships out of European conflicts. 1807: NWC Upper Kootenay House, built by David Thompson. 1807 - David Thompson crosses Rockies and builds trading post at headwaters of Columbia River - In the spring John Colter joins Manuel Lisa at the Platte River who winters on Yellowstone River at the mouth of the Bighorn River - Great Britain abolishes institution of slavery - Thomas Jefferson signs bill banning all foreign trade following British attacks on American shipping - Lisa sends John Colter to find the Crow Indians and during this time he becomes the first explorer to enter the present boundary of Yellowstone Park. 1807: The British ship "Leopard" searches the U.S. "Chesapeake," for deserters, kills some of the crew and takes Radford, who is hanged. Pending satisfaction, the United States close their ports to British ships, though reparation is tendered. 1808 - David Thompson explores Kootenai River - Simon Fraser follows Fraser River to the Pacific - Colter with Flathead Indians are attacked by Blackfeet near the Three Forks - On a return trip to the Three Forks John Colter and John Potts are captured by Blackfeet, Potts is killed and Colter is stripped and told to run for his life (Colter's Run) - American Fur Company is chartered by John Jacob Astor to compete with Canadian fur trade. 1809-11 - Tecumseh, Shawnee chief, and the Prophet campaign to unite tribes of the Great Lakes, Ohio Valley, and Southeast against the United States. His brother Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee Prophet, is defeated at Tippecanoe in 1811. 1809-23 - Sequoyah single-handedly creates a Cherokee syllabic alphabet so that his people's language can be written. 1809 Napoleon's continental blockade cuts British access to Scandinavian timber. 1809 - President James Madison reinstates embargo on British trade - Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theory of evolution based on acquired characteristics published in Paris - Charles Darwin born 1809, Nov 3: John Molson's steam-boat "Accomodation" starts for Quebec. It is 85 feet over all, has a 6 horse-power engine, makes the distance in 36 hours, but stops at night and reaches Quebec on the 6th. The "Accommodation" is the second steam-boat in America and, probably, in the world. 1810: From now, War Hawks advocate war with Britain, which has ben harassing American shipping. 1810 - David Thompson builds trade houses on Pend Oreille Lake and Flathead River - Sir Walter Scott publishes /The Lady of the Lake/ - Colter guides Colonel Menard to Three Forks to build a fort. Colter returns to St. Louis leaving May 1st and arriving on May 31st. 1810, Jan: The Governor declares that, in case of hostilities, a force of regulars, adequate for the defence of Canada, will co-operate with the Militia. 1810, March: /Le Canadien/ of Quebec is suppressed, for seditious utterances. Soldiers, led by a magistrate, seize the plant and apprehend the printer. Warrants to arrest Messrs. Bedard, Taschereau, Papineau, Viger and others are issued. The Governor asks: "During the fifty years you have been under British rule, has one act of oppression, one instance of arbitrary imprisonment, of violation of property, or of the rights of conscience ever occured?" 1810, Nov 26: John Molson asks the exclusive right to construct and navigate steam-boats, on the St. Lawrence, for 15 years. 1811-12: HBC Selkirk Colony, on 116,000 sq. mi. across North West Company access to western posts. 1811 - John Jacob Astor's Pacific Fur Company establishes post at mouth of Columbia River - David Thompson follows Columbia to Pacific and finishes charting entire length of the river - William Price Hunt, leading Astor's overland party, explores Snake River Valley and much of future Oregon Trail. 1811: When Governor Craig leaves for England, British Canadians detach the horses and draw his carriage to the place of embarkation. President Madison, in his message to Congress, says: "We have seen the British Cabinet not only persist, in refusing satisfaction demanded for the wrongs we have already suffered, but it is extending to our own waters that blockade, which is become a virtual war against us, through a stoppage of our legitimate commerce." 1812-15 - War of 1812: Tecumseh, allied with the British, dies in 1813 at the Battle of the Thames in Canada. 1812 The U.S. declares war on Britain (June 18), beginning the War of 1812. Americans under General William Hull invade Canada from Detroit (July 11). Canadians are victorious at the Battle of Queenston Heights (Oct. 13). The Red River settlement is begun in Canada's northwest (Aug.-Oct.) on lands granted to Lord Selkirk by the Hudson's Bay Company. 1812 - David Thompson retires to Montreal - Napoleon retreats from Russia after burning Moscow - Baron Cuvier publishes first volume of his /Researches on the Bones of Fossil Vertebrates/ - John Colter dies on May 7th. 1812 War of 1812 declared, allowing Maritime colonies to profit from illegal trade. 1812: In the War of 1812, most Canadians, convinced that Americans are the aggressors, rally to the British flag. Indeed, the militia aids the British army in the defense of Upper and Lower Canada. Some 2,000 Blacks come from the United States to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick during the War of 1812. 1812, Thursday June 18: The United States declare war against Great Britain, for impressing seamen, etc. There are but 4,000 British troops in Canada. Sir Geo. Prevost is Governor. Four Canadian battalions are assembled, and the Citadel at Quebec is guarded by the inhabitants. 1812, Saturday July 11: U.S. troops invade Canada. 1812, Sunday August 16: Sir Isaac Brock, 1,350, nearly half Indians, takes Detroit. He paroles many of Hull's 2,000. 1812, Thursday August 20: Launch of Molson's second steamboat, the "Swiftsure," at Montreal. 1812, October: Almost half of Vermont's Legislators regard war as needless and impolitic; but Vermont imposes a penalty of $1,000 for every unauthorized communication with Canadians. 1812, Tuesday October 13: Van Renselaer's command is repulsed, on Queenston Heights by Gen. Sheaffe and Governor Brock, who is killed. Of the 10,000 under Van Renselaer, many scrupled to invade, though willing to defend. Fighting on the same side as White militia and Mohawk Indians, a group of Black soldiers forces American invaders to retreat in the Battle of Queenston Heights. 1812, Sunday October 25: Battle at St. Regis. 1812, Friday November 20: Dearborn's command cross the Lacolle. DeSalaberry eludes them, and, in the haze, U.S. troops fire upon each other. 1812: The Americans gain several victories, on the water, as Napoleon engages British attention. 1812: The United States call out 175,000 men, Canada 2,000. 1812: For all purposes Canada votes 87,000 pounds. 1812: Highest price of wheat, per quarter, in England, 157s. 1d. 1812 Red River settlement founded by Hudson's Bay Company. 1813 Americans burn York (Apr. 27). The Battles of Stoney Creek (June 5) and Beaver Dam (June 23) are Canadian victories, the latter in part due to Laura Secord's famous 32 km. walk to warn Lieutenant James FitzGibbon, who had already been warned by Indians. The Battles of Put-in-Bay, Lake Erie (Sept. 10) and Moraviantown (Oct. 5) are both American victories. At the latter, which is also known as the Battle of the Thames, British supporter and Shawnee Indian Chief Tecumseh is killed. The Battles of Chateauguay (Oct. 25) -- with mostly French-Canadian soldiers -- and Crysler's Farm (Nov. 11) -- with English-Canadian soldiers -- are Canadian both victories over larger American troops. 1813 Amerindian chief Tecumseh is killed at the Battle of Moraviantown. 1813, Friday January 22: General Proctor's 1,300 British and Indians capture 495 U.S. troops, under General Winchester. 1813, Sunday February 7: Battle of Elizabethtown. 1813, Tuesday March 30: Engagement at Lacolle. 1813, Tuesday April 27: The Americans, under Dearborn, take York, but the explosion of a magazine kills many of them. 1813, Wednesday May 5: Proctor captures 467 of 1200 Kentuckians, under Clay, near Fort Meigs. 1813, May 27: Battle of Fort George 1813, Tuesday June 1: The English frigate "Shannon" takes the "Chesapeake," in 15 minutes, off Boston. 1813, Thursday June 3: The "Growler" and the "Eagle," which left Plattsburg, yesterday, are taken by the British gun-boats they pursued; capture of Generals Chandler and Winder and 120 U.S. troops, at Burlington Heights, by Lieut. Col. Harvey. 1813, June 24: Battle of Beaver Dams 1813, Friday July 30: The British destroy Plattsburg's barracks, and fire at Burlington, but avoid the reply. 1813, Tuesday October 5: U.S. troops win the Battle of the Thames. Tecumseh is killed. 1813, Tuesday October 26: General Hampton, commanding 7,000 U.S. troops, ignorant of Col. de Salaberry's experience, and expecting French desertions, divides his force. Part lose their way; the rest spend their strength in a maze of obstructions. DeSalaberry gains the thanks of the commander-in-chief and of both Houses, and decoration by the Prince Regent. 1813, Sunday December 19: Col. Murray takes Fort Niagara. Highest price, per quarter of wheat, in England, 125s. 7d. 1813: 198 vessels, of 46,514 tons, clear Quebec. 1814 Victories alternate between U.S. and British forces until the Treaty of Ghent ends the war (Dec. 24). 1814 - David Thompson delivers his map of western North America to partners of North West Company. 1814: Treaty of Ghent ends War of 1812; no territorial gains on either side. 1814, Thursday March 3: The Governor refuses to suspend Chief Justices Sewell and Monk, on suggestion of one branch of the Legislature. James Stuart moves, affirming the Assembly's right to inform the Governor of irregularities, without concurrence of the Council; and that the Governor has violated the Constitution. 1814, Monday March 7: The Assembly votes confidence in the Governor, apart from his advisors. 1814, Tuesday March 8: The council sustain their Clerk's refusal to show their minutes to a Committee of the Assembly. 1814, Wednesday March 9: The Assembly vote 2,000 pounds, for impeachment of Chief Justices Sewell and Monk. The Council will not pass the item. 1814, Thursday March 17: The Assembly resolve that the Council's disallowance of a money bill is contrary to English and Canadian usage. 1814, Thursday March 31: The Allies enter Paris. 1814, Friday May 6: The British, under Drummond, burn the fort at Oswego. 1814, Wednesday May 11: Napoleon Bonaparte abdicates. 1814, May 25: Joseph Louis Papineau is unanimously elected speaker. 1814, July 5: Battle of Chippewa 1814, Monday July 25: The United States lose about 1,000 of 3,000 at the Battle of Lundy's Lane. 1814, August: 4,000 of Wellington's veterans have reached Canada. 1814, Aug 1 - Nov 5: The Siege of Fort Erie. 1814, Thursday August 11: Battle of Lake Champlain. 1814, Sunday August 14: At Fort Erie, the British lose many lives, by the explosion of a magazine. 1814, August: General Ross takes Washington, D.C. 1814, Thursday August 25: The sea-board of the U.S. is blockaded by ships released from European service. 1814: At New Orleans, sharp-shooters, behind cotton bales, repulse the British. 1814, August: Envoys consider terms of peace, at Ghent. 1814, Monday September 12: An expedition of 11,000 under Governor Prevost, supplied to winter at Plattsburg, N.Y., seeing its fleet dispersed and the enemy gathering, retreats, abandoning stores. In 1813, Wellington desired that Prevost should not abandon his policy of defence for petty advantages, to be gained by invasion, which he could not possibly maintain. 1814: October: Martin Chittenden, Governor of Vermont, regards the war "as unnecessary, unwise and hopeless, in all its offensive operations." 1814, Thursday December 22: Treaty of Commerce, between the U.S. and Great Britain, signed at Ghent. 1814, Tuesday December 27: The Prince Regent ratifies both treaties. One relates to boundaries and the slave trade. Canadian Army bills, 1,500,000 pounds. Chief Justice Sewell, while in England, to defend himself, advises uniting the Canadas with one Parliament. The War has reduced American exports, in two years, from 22,000,000 pounds, stg., to 1,400,000 pounds; imports from 28,000,000 pounds to less than 3,000.000 pounds. Hundreds of U.S. ships have been captured and thousands of U.S. merchants ruined. The Assembly re-proposes representation in London. The Council objects. The Home Government declares that the Governor is the constitutional medium of communication between the Colony and the Imperial Government. 1814: The British burn Washington. American resistance at Baltimore inspires "The Star Spangled Banner" by Francis Scott Key (1779-1843). 1815, January: Unaware of the Treaty of Ghent, Gen. Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) wins an overwhelming victory at New Orleans. 1815, Feb 9: A Bill, to give the speaker a salary is read: salary 1,000 pounds. 1815, Feb 18: The United States ratify Treaties, signed in December, 1814. 1815, Mar 25: Governor Prevost informs Parliament, that the Prince Regent has ordered him to England, to answer charges of the naval commander. 1815, March: Parliament votes 25,000 pounds for a canal from Montreal to Lachine. 1815, June 18 - Wellington defeats Napoleon at Waterloo After the War, large-scale emigration of English, Scots, and Irish from Europe swells the ranks of the English-speaking population of Canada. 1816, Jan 5: Sir George Prevost dies before consideration of Commodore Yeo's charges; but the Duke of Wellington says: "He must have returned, after the fleet was beaten, I am inclined to think he was right. I have told ministers, repeatedly, that naval superiority, on the Lakes, is a sine qua non of success in war on the frontiers of Canada, even if our object should be wholly defensive." 1816 After several years of harassment by agents of the North West Company, Metis and Indians under Cuthbert Grant kill Robert Semple, governor of the Red River settlement, and twenty others at Seven Oaks (June 19). 1816: A steam-boat is first placed on Lake Ontario. 1817 Famine in Newfoundland due to poor postwar economy 1817 Nova Scotia population estimated at 78,345 1817 - David Thompson takes post as chief surveyor for International Boundary Commission. 1817 The Rush-Bagot agreement limits the number of battleships on the Great Lakes to a total of eight. 1817, Feb 4: Francois Page petitions for monopoly of navigation of Lower Canadian Rivers, by an invention of which he produces a model. 1817, Feb 18: Mr. McCord reads a petition for the deepening of the St. Lawrence. 1817, Feb 28: One Goudie and others petition for a monopoly of navigation of Lake Champlain, in Canada, as like U.S. monopolists injure Canadian Commerce, by trading into Canada. 1818, Apr 1: An expedition sails for the North Pole. 1818, Aug 28: The Governor (Duke of Richmond) dies of hydrophobia. Halifax and St. Johns are made free ports. 1818: The American and Canadian border is fixed. 1818 49th parallel becomes British North America/U.S. border from Lake of the Woods to Rocky Mountains 1818 Canada's border is defined as the 49th Parallel from Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 1819: Cape Breton is annexed to Nova Scotia. 1820, Jun 18: The Governor, Earl of Dalhousie, arrives. 1820: William Lyon Mackenzie emigrates to Canada. 1821-24: The Lachine Canal is completed. 1821, Jul 17: The Canal from Montreal to Lachine is begun. 1821: Northwest Company merges with Hudson Bay Company. 1821: Hudson's Bay Company merges with arch rivals, the Montreal-based North West Company. 1821 - Amalgamation of North West and Hudson's Bay Companies. 1821 The Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company amalgamate, creating unemployment for a substantial proportion of their Metis workforce. 1821 - No foreigners allowed in Russian-American waters, except at regular ports of call. 1821 "Amalgamation" NorthWest co. sells out to HBC. Timber and agricultural goods are new staples traded through Montreal and a growing Toronto. The merchant elites in both cities want canals to improve the water routes opened by fur trade in order to capture the Upper Canada and the mid-west US agricultural trades and the more delicate sawn lumber products. 1822 Louis-Joseph Papineau, a member of the legislative assembly since 1814, travels from Montreal to England to oppose an Act of Union identifying the French Canadians as a minority without language rights. The act is not passed in the British Parliament. 1823 - James Fenimore Cooper's /The Pioneer/, first volume of his Leatherstocking series, published in United States. 1823, Oct 7: A French meeting, at Montreal, protests that the proposed terms of Union of Upper and Lower Canada are unfair. 1823, Oct 14: At a meeting, in Montreal, Mr. (afterwards Sir) James Stuart favors Union. Petitions, pro and con, are forwarded to England. In England, Messrs. Papineau and Neilson object that fiteen hundred miles of diverse climates and difficult communication are too much for one Government, and cite the United States' example, of seven States, in that distance. Incompatibility of laws, customs and religion, and racial prejudices are urged as further objections. As French-Canadians outnumber the English, but have less wealth, they desire representation by population, with a low property qualification. They would have councillors excluded from addressing the Assembly, and wish their mother-tongue to be the language of the debates. 1824-29: The first Welland Canal is completed, partly in response to American initiatives in the Erie Canal. 1824 - Russians begin exploration of mainland that leads to discovery of Nushagak, Kuskokwim, Yukon, and Koyokuk Rivers. 1824: William Lyon Mackenzie establishes the /Colonial Advocate/. 1824 First canal (Lachine) completed. 1825 - Spokane House closed - Fort Colville built at Kettle Falls. 1825 Opening of Erie Canal gives New York competitive edge over Montreal 1825, Jan 3: The Parliament House, at Toronto, is burned. 1825, Sep 7: Soldiers of the 70th Regiment subdue a fire, which consumes over eighty buildings, in Montreal. 1825, Nov 2: The Erie Canal is begun. 1825 US finishes ambitious Erie canal from Buffalo to Hudson River and New York City. Puts competitive pressure on Montreal and Toronto merchant elites to finish canals. 1826-32: Royal engineer Col. John By builds the Rideau Canal. 1826: The Family Compact destroys the /Colonial Advocate/ office in York. 1826, June 8: A mob of the ruling party destroy the /Colonial Advocate's/ press at York. William Lyon Mackenzie publisher, prosecutes. The Governor prorogues Parliament, and so, possibly, prevents a rebellion. The Rideau Canal is begun. 1827 1828: William Lyon Mackenzie elected to the Assembly with the first Reform majority. 1829 Opening of Lachine Canal restores level playing field for Montreal 1829 Welland canal completed. 1830 - John Mullan born July 31 in Norfolk, Virginia - Influenza epidemic strikes tribes of British Columbia. In 1830-33 there are multiple outbreaks of European diseases in California and Oregon. 1830: Canada is divided into counties. 1830: William Lyon Mackenzie re-elected to the Assembly with a Reform minority. 1831: A charter for a railway, from Laprairie to St. Johns, is granted; it will be the first railway in Canada. 1831: Massive Patriot campaign to petition the king for reforms. 1832: William Lyon Mackenzie expelled from Assembly twice and re-elected twice between Dec. 1831 and March 1832. 1832, March: Attempted assassination of William Lyon Mackenzie at Hamilton. 1832, May 21: Election riots at Montreal. Three persons being shot by the troops, Colonel Macintosh and Captain Temple are arrested. 1832, Jun 20: Eighty-eight deaths, from Asiatic cholera, at Montreal. 1832, December: A meeting, at Toronto, proposes annexation of the District of Montreal to Upper Canada. Deaths from Asiatic cholera, in Quebec, in five months, 3,300. Meetings of French Canadians attribute the cholera to British immigrants, 52,000 having arrived in the year. The City of Montreal is incorporated. Heretofore an out-port of Quebec, it becomes a port of entry. 1832: William Lyon Mackenzie leaves for England with 25,000 names on the petition, with little result. 1832: William Lyon Mackenzie expelled and re-elected while away. 1833: Slavery is abolished throughout the British Empire. 1833: Royal William, formerly operating between Quebec and Halifax, becomes first steamship to cross Atlantic. 1833, Aug 30: Great Britain abolishes slavery in the British West Indies. 1833, Sep: William Lyon Mackenzie returns from England. 1833, Sep 19: Military riot at Montreal. 1833, Nov 13: Showers of meteors, at Niagara. 1833, Nov-Dec: William Lyon Mackenzie expelled three times and re-elected twice. 1834 - At midnight July 31, slavery comes to an end in all British territories, including British North America. To honour this important event, August 1 is celebrated as Emancipation Day in Windsor, Ontario, and elsewhere. 1834 - Father Veniaminov moves to Sitka; consecrated Bishop Innokenty in 1840. 1834, Jan: The Kings has appointed an arbitrator to settle questions regarding customs dues between the Canadas. 1834, Jan: The King will not make the Legislative Council elective, as it would be inconsistent with monarchy, but he will favor measures for the Council's independence. 1834, Jan: The Secretary of State for the Colonies writes "If coming events should constrain the British Legislature to interpose its supreme authority to appease the internal dissensions of the Colony, it would then, indeed, become my duty to submit fo rthe consideration of Parliament, some modifications of the charters of the Canadas, not however, for introducing institutions inconsistent with monarchy, but to preserve and cement their connection with the Mother Country, adhering ever to the spirit of the British Constitution, and confining within their legitimate bounds the rights and privileges of His Majesty's subjects." 1834, Jan 23: The Castle of St. Louis (Quebec) is burned. 1834, Mar 6: Incorporation of Toronto, heretofore York. 1834: William Lyon Mackenzie elected first mayor of the city of Toronto. 1834, Dec 9: Foundation of the "Canadian Alliance Society" in Upper Canada at Toronto. Before a committee of the British Commons, Hon. Edward Ellice suggests remedies for troubles in Canada. At Stanstead, Hon. Mr. Papineau addresses many inhabitants of the locality, and from Vermont and New Hampshire. Speaking, in the House, upon resolutions, which he frames and Mr. Bedard moves, Mr. Papineau says "It is certain that, before long, the whole of America will be republicanized. "If a change be necessary in our present constitution, it is to be undertaken in view of such a conjuncture as I have just mentioned. Would it be a crime, were I to demand that it should? The members of the House are all answerable to their constituents for whatever decisions they may come to, in this regard. And, even though the soldiery should slaughter them for it, they ought not to hesitate, for one moment, to pronounce for any change which they consider beneficial to their country." Mr. Neilson replies: "The American revolutionists and the British Liberals contended for the maintenance of franchises already acquired; we oppositionists are reaching out our hands for freedom which we never possessed. The Resolutions can not be justified, for they favor the refusal of supplies, without which there would be no means of defraying the expense of governing the Province." The 92 resolutions are passed by the Legislative Assemby of Lower Canada. The complaints relate, chiefly, to nominations of Councillors, partiality in filling offices, of which 47 are alleged to have been distributed among 525,000 Frenchmen, against 157 higher positions, among 75,000 of British origin. A majority of the Assmebly pray for Lord Aylmer's impeachment for maladministration, and invite Daniel O'Connell and others to assist them. The Council and British Canadians counter-petition. The Assembly omit voting supplies. Adopting revolutionary tactics, Papineau advises wearing homespun cloth and buying nothing British, in order to diminish misused revenues. Bankstocks being of British ownership, he advises a general demand of gold for banknotes. 1834: Samuel Lount elected to Assembly along with William Lyon Mackenzie and a Reform majority. 1835 Joseph Howe, a Halifax printer and owner since 1828 of the weekly Novascotian, is arrested for libel but successfully argues his own case for freedom of the press. A local hero, he begins advocating the kind of responsible government that is only established in 1848. 1835, Feb 21: The Governor's speech, proroguing the Assembly's last session, is expunged from the Journals. Mr. Gugy, having declared his preference for a government of men born in the Province, Mr. Papineau replies "Now, I have no such preference; the government I long for is one composed of friends of legality, liberty and justice, - a government which will protect, indiscriminately, every proper interest, and accord to all ranks, and to each race of the inhabitants, equal rights and privilegs. "I love, I esteem all good men, as men, not preferentially, because they are of this or that descent; but I detest those haughty dominators, who come among us, and dispute our right to enjoy our own laws, customs and religion. "The call is made upon is, - 'Let us be all as brothers! I respond, so let us not be, if you, who thus adjure us, keep a selfish grasp of all place power and endowment. That is unjust, and we cannot suffer such injustice. Briefly, we demand for ourselves such political institutions as are in accordance with the rest of the Empire and with the age we live in." To Mr. Bedard, who declares that, as the address refuses all the Governor asks, he cannot support it, Mr. Papineau replies: "The force of circumstances compels us to put aside accustomed formalities, and to express, unrestrainedly, what we deeply feel. It would be a libel on Britain to assume that she may possibly pass a coercion Bill against us, and send ten regiments over to enforce it. If such were the case, however, we ought to be prepared, all the sooner, to rid ourselves of so tyrannical a Domination." This revolutionary speech reduces the Country Party in the House to less than two-thirds of the members. The Governor will not sign a warrant for sessional expenses, until past payments are ratified. He prorogues the House. In the British Parliament, Mr. Stanley says there is no evidence to justify any one of the 92 Resolutions. Sir Robert Peel announces that a Commission will investigate Canadian affairs, and report; but that no change of Constitution will be immediately made. If complaints as to its working prove unfounded, the agitation will be suppressed. To those threatening insurrection, he says "Our desire is to do justice; beware, then, lest your threats turn to your own disadvantage. 1836 Opening of Canada's first railway line, from St. Johns, Quebec, to La Prairie, Quebec. 1836, Feb: Lord Aberdeen approves of Lord Aylmer's conduct. The Governor declares that, in filling offices, he has more considered qualifications than nationality; that 80, of 142, places of emolument, and 295 of 580 unsalaried offices, are filled by Frenchmen. 1836: Lieutenant-Governor Bond Head dissolves parliament and calls a new election. 1836, July 4: First issue of /The Constitution/ published. 1836, August: The Commission reaches Quebec, and consists of Lord Gosford, Sir Charles Grey and Sir James Gipps. A congratulatory address is presented to them at Quebec. 1836, October: Lord Gosford informs Parliament of the purposes of the Commission and of the intended changes. He exhorts members to be conciliatory, saying: "Consider the blessings you might enjoy, but for your dissensions. Offspring, as you are, of the two foremost nations of the earth, you hold a vast and beautiful country, having a fertile soil, with a healthful climate, while the noblest river in the world makes seaports of your remote havens." 1836, Nov: Commissioner Grey embarks for England. Mr. Papineau's following is 40 to 27, of the House. Mr. Papineau declares "Our task is not light, indeed, for we are called on to defend the rights of all British Colonial dependencies, as well as that we inhabit. "The same evil genius, whos workings drove provincials of the neighboring States, unwittingly into the paths of a righteous and glorious resistance, presides over our affairs also. "...These Commissioners' instructions imply refusal, of those who prepared them, to listen heedfully to any representation of the many grievances either Canada has to complain of." Eastern Townships, members desert Mr. Papineau. Lord Gosford disappointedly declares "I will not predict all the consequences which may result from the factious oppostion." In Upper Canada the 92 resolutions are expunged from the journals. Early-mid 1800s: More than 30,000 American Blacks escape slavery in the United States and come to Canada. 1837: British attempts to unite the colonies of Upper and Lower Canada lead to revolt. 1837 Two separate rebellions, one in Upper and one in Lower Canada, fail to dislodge entrenched elites. 1837: Black militia units participate in putting down the rebellion in Upper Canada. 1837: Along with a general feeling that the government was not democratic, the failure of the executive committee to maintain the confidence of the elected officials leads to violent but unsuccessful rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada. The leaders, William Lyon Mackenzie (Reformers) and Louis-Joseph Papineau (Patriotes), both escape to the U.S. 1837: British parliament passes Coercion Bill, seizes Lower Canada treasury. 1837: Chartists organize support in England. 1837, July 31: Declaration of Toronto Reformers followed by 200 township meetings. 1837, Aug 26: Lord Gosford prorogues Parliament by proclamation. Mr. Papineau finds a copy on his seat, on returning from the audience hall. Lord Gosford is now convinced that it is intended to institute a republican form of government, in Canada. Justices of the Peace and officers of Militia are removed from office: Mr. Papineau among them. The newspaper /Le Populaire/ is started, at Montreal, to quiet the public mind; and, at Quebec, the /Liberal/, a seditious journal. The Governor warns the people against rebellion. Messrs. Papineau, Lafontaine, Girouard and Morin go through the country, exciting the inhabitants. An effigy of the Governor is burnt. Mr. Lafontaine says "We have demanded reforms, without obtaining them. It is time to be up and doing." Lord Gosford proposes adding seven Frenchmen to the Legislative Council and nine to the Executive Council. "Sons of Liberty" secretly drill and prepare munitions; but many of the French remain loyal. Among the malcontents are Dr. Nelson, Messrs. Papineau, Wilson, Viger, Lacoste, Brown, and Girod. Alarmed at the length excitement has carried him, Mr. Papineau now inclines to the constitutional remedy of ceasing to trade with England, but Dr. Nelson declares that the time for action has come. The Roman Catholic Bishop Lartigue, of Montreal, preaches obedience to authority, as a cardinal rule of the Church. The R. C. Bishop Signai, of Quebec, warns his flock against revolt, and reminds them that, even in France, where sovereignty resides in the people, it rests, not with a part, but with the whole population; and "who will dare to say that the whole population of this country desire the overthrow of the Government?" General Colborne speedily arms 600 inhabitants, and regulars are called from New Bruswick. 1837, November: William Lyon Mackenzie presents plans to overthrow the government. 1837, Nov 6: In Montreal, the Doric Club come to blows with "Sons of Liberty." The military march through the streets with guns. 1837, Nov 22: Patriotes defeat British army at St. Denis, Lower Canada. 1837, Nov 22: At St. Denis, Col. Gore, with five companies of regulars, fails to dislodge Dr. Nelson, with 200 men, behind walls. For safety, Mr. Papineau is induced to cross the Line. 1837, Nov 24: William Lyon Mackenzie delivers order to local leaders to march on Toronto Dec. 7. 1837, Nov 25: British defeat Patriotes at St. Charles and return to burn St. Denis. 1837, Nov 25: Col. Wetherall's 400 defeat a larger number of rebels, of whom about 100 are killed, 372 wounded, and 30 surrender. At St. Eustache, over 1,200 rebels, under Dr. Chenier and Girod, a Swiss, dwindle to 250. A priest tries to dissuade Dr. Chenier, who replies, with a trea, "I will conquer, or die." Sir John Colborne, with 2,000 and field-pieces, wins the battle. To unarmed followers Dr. Chenier has said: "Be easy; some will be killed - you can take their muskets." True, there are muskets to spare, but the men to use them are wanting. Girod shoots himself. T.S. Brown and Dr. O'Callaghan cross the Line. At St. Benoid, 250 men surrender to Sir John Colborne. People return thanks for peace, and promise loyalty. Mr. Lafontaine too tardily asks the Governor to summon Parliament. He refuses. Arrests are made on charge of High Treason. Rolph panics, calls troops out for Dec. 4. 1837, Dec 2: Troops occupy St. Denis. 1837, Dec 5: Lord Gosford proclaims martial law. 1837, Dec 6: Battle of Mississquoi Bay. 1837, Dec 7: Rebels are defeated, at Toronto. 1837, Dec 7: Loyalist militia defeats Patriots at Toronto. William Lyon Mackenzie escapes to the U.S. 1837, Dec 9: Peter Matthews captured. 1837: Charles Duncombe leads Patriot uprising in London District. 1837, Dec 13: Revolutionary Provisional Goverment established at Navy Island. 1837, Dec 13: Governor-General Colborne leads British assault on Two Mountains Country, Lower Canada. 1837, Dec 14: Rebels are defeated, at St. Eustache. 1837, Dec 15: Rebels surrender, at Grade Brule. 1837, Dec 16: Wm. Lyon MacKenzie occupies Navy Island. 1837, Dec 29: Patriot steamship /Caroline/ burned in Niagara River. 1837, Dec 29: The steamer "Caroline" is burned at Niagara Falls. Highest price of wheat, per quarter, in England, 59s. In the course of this year, steam is adopted as the motive power, on the Champlain & St. Lawrence Railway. 1837 Revolts in Upper and Lower Canada. Small businessmen and farmers against merchant elites who, as political leaders, are raising property taxes, tariffs and freight rates to raise money for canals. 1838, January: Sam Lount captured. 1838, Jan 13: Navy Island evacuated. 1838, Jan 13: Lord Eldon, Lord Chancellor under three kings, dies. 1838, Jan 14: The rebels, under MacKenzie, evacuate Navy Island. 1838, Jan 17: Lord John Russell introduces a bill to suspend the Constitution of Canada. Lord Brougham says, "You propose to punish a whole Province, because it contains a few malcontent parishes; thusly, by your indiscriminating prescriptions, you chastise those, even, who have helped you to stifle the insurrection. 1838, February: Border raids begin: Lake Champlain, Hickory, Fighting and Pelee Islands. 1838, Apr 12: Sam Lount and Peter Matthews hanged at Toronto. 1838, May-July: Guerrilla actions: burning of the /Sir Robert Peel/. 1838, May 27: Earl Durham, Governor, arrives at Quebec. 1838: As governor general and high commissioner of British North America, Lord Durham arrives to investigate the circumstances behind the Rebellion of 1837. 1838, July 4: Short Hills uprising. 1838: James Moreau hanged at Niagara. 1838, Aug 16: Lord Durham's ordinance is disallowed. 1838, Nov 1: Lord Durham leaves Quebec. 1838, Nov 3: Second Rebellion in Canada. 1838, November: Uprising in Lower Canada. Battle of the Windmill at Prescott, Upper Canada. 1838, Nov 9: Battle of Odelltown. 1838, Nov 10: The rebels gain a victory at Beauharnois. 1838, Nov 16: Invaders under Von Shoultz are defeated, at Prescott. 1838, December: Battle of Windsor. 1838, Dec 13: Sir John Colborne, Governor General, Messrs. Moffat, Stuart and Badgley go to England, to represent British Canadian views. Lord Howick declares "If I thought the great mass of people were hostile to Britain, I should say that what ought to be done would be to see how a final separation between them and us could be effectuated without sacrificing British interests; but I do not think that British Canadians are opposed to British domination, for our alliance is more necessary to them than their connection is important to us." Of the French Canadians, he says, "If it be only for their laws and particular usages that they are struggling, surrounded, as they are, by people of other races, they must be aware that they would be made to undergo, if they lost British protection, a much more violent change than any which they have yet had to endure; and certainly, greater and more general than any which we may mean to prescribe for them." He adds that "Unlimited executive responsibility is irreconcilable with the relations which ought to exist between a colony and the metropolitan power. Mr. Grote says, "If the violation, in part, of the Constitution determined the Canadians to arm in defence of their rights, how will they endure the suspension of the Constitution entirely and the confiscation of popular freedom?" 1838: Conflict over the New Brunswick-Maine border begins in the Aroostook River area. 1838: During December '38 and January '39, 30 Patriots hanged in London, Kingston and Montreal. 1838, Dec 23: Execution, at Montreal, of the rebels Cardinal and Duquet. The Custom House, at Montreal, is finished. The population of Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island is 1,282,000. Insurgents are amnestied. The governors of New York and Vermont forbid interference with Canadian difficulties. Highest price of wheat, per quarter, in England, 80s. 9d. 1839: Lord Durham's Report recommends union of Upper and Lower Canada, and responsible government. 1839: Lord Durham's report recommends the establishment of responsible government and the union of Upper and Lower Canada to speed the assimilation of French-speaking Canadians. Territorial disputes between lumbermen from Maine and New Brunswick lead to armed conflict in the Aroostook River valley (the Aroostook War). 1839, Feb 15: Chevalier DeLorimier and others who joined in the Rebellion are executed. 1839, Apr 11: Death of John Galt, novelist. He was one of the originators of the British American Land Company. 1839, Jun 24: Last meeting of the Committee of Trade, forerunner of the Board of Trade. 1839, Sep 26: Canadian rebels are transported to New South Wales. 1839, Oct 19: Hon C. Thompson, Governor of Upper and Lower Canada, arrives. It is determined that Upper and Lower Canada shall share revenue in the ratio of 2 to 3. First Horse Railway in Upper Canada. 1840: Russian Orthodox Diocese formed in Alaska; Bishop Innokenty Veniaminov given permission to use Native languages in the liturgy. 1840: Act of Union. 1840, May 6: Postage stamps come into use. 1841, Jun 10: Queen Victoria and Prince Albert are shot at. 1841, Jun 28: Queen Victoria is crowned. 1841, Jul 23: The Queen sanctions the union of Upper and Lower Canada. Peter McGill, Mayor of Montreal. 1840 Act of Union: United Canadas Act allows larger government to borrow more money. 1841-42: The Dawn Settlement in what is now Dresden, Ontario, is established to provide self-help for Blacks in agricultural communities. 1841: Upper and Lower Canada are united and given responsible government. 1841: Act of Union unites Upper and Lower Canada. 1841: An Act of Union unites Upper and Lower Canada (Feb. 10) as the Province of Canada. 1841: Edward de Stoeckl assigned to the secretariat of the Russian legation in the U.S. 1841, Jun 13: First Parliament of Canada meets at Kingston. 1842-46 English repeal protective tariffs on timber and wheat under the influence of laissez faire ideology. Cornwall canal finished. US tries to attract Canadian wheat to Erie canal route by allowing temporary tariff rebates. Increasing economic vulnerability of British North America. c. 1842: The Independent Order of Odd Fellows breaks from the Manchester Unity, soon opening lodges in Montreal and Halifax. 1842, Jan 10: Governor-General Sir Charles Bagot arrives at Kingston. The "Ashburton Treaty" is made. 1842: The Webster Ashburton Treaty settles the US-Canadian border. 1842 New Brunswick/Maine boundary settled by Webster-Ashburton Treaty. 1842 The Webster-Ashburton Treaty ends the Aroostook War, settling once and for all the Maine-New Brunswick border dispute (Aug.). The first Railway in Nova Scotia is begun. 1843: Fort Victoria built by British to strengthen their claim to Vancouver Island. 1843 - David Thompson sends a set of refined maps to London - The first of 300,000 American settlers follow Oregon Trail west - Russian Orthodox Church founds first mission school for Eskimos in Alaska. 1843 Britain's claim to Vancouver Island is assured by Fort Victoria. 1843: Lord Metcalfe comes to Montreal. The Cornwall and Chambly Canals are opened. Survey of Boundary, between the U.S. and Canada, is begun. 1844 Amnesty in Montreal provides for Papineau's return. The first Railway in New Brunswick is begun. Government removes from Kingston to Montreal. 1845 Halifax native Samuel Cunard chooses Boston as the western terminus for his steamships 1845: Lord Cathcart, the new governor, arrives. The Rebellion Losses Commission sits. The Welland Canal is opened. 1846-48 - U.S.- Mexican War begun by U.S. annexation of Texas (1845). The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) cedes the Spanish Southwest, home of many Indian tribes, to the United States. 1846: An Anglo-American treaty settles the Oregon border. 1846 British Prime Minister Robert Peel announces Free Trade, ending old Colonial mercantile trade system 1846 - David Thompson begins compiling a book about his travels - Great Britain and United States settle long-disputed boundary of Oregon Territory. 1846, Jan 29: Many persons in the Eastern Townships are arrested on charge of counterfeiting, being afterwards tried before Sir James Stuart and other Judges. Hon L. T. Drummond and Edward Short, (afterwards judges), prosecute; H. B. Terrill (afterwards M.P.P. for Stanstead), defends. All are acquitted. 1846, Apr 18: The commission on Rebellion Losses reports. 1846, Jun 9: Burning of St. John's, Newfoundland. 1846, Jun 12: Theatre burned at Quebec. Mines north of Lake Superior are explored. The new canal, from Lachine, overcomes a fall of 42 ft., in 8 1/2 miles, by two locks of 13 ft. and two of 8 ft. Equal fall of the whole river would ield 4,500,000 horse power. Hon. John Young writes the Economist, favoring a bridge across the St. Lawrence. 1847 St. Lawrence canal system completed. Faster and cheaper than US system, but growing US railroads are now the real threat. 1847 - Outbreak of measles among the Cayuse of the Pacific Northwest. 1847 - Fort Yukon established. 1847: Tories burn Parliament Buildings at Montreal. 1847, Jan 30: Lord Elgin, Governor, arrives at Montreal. 1847, Sep 1: Lord Elgin visits the immigrant sheds at Pt. St. Charles. 1847, Oct 18: Telegraph Line from Quebec to London, C. W., complete. 1847, Oct 23: 65 immigrants die in a week at Point St. Charles. 1847, Nov 1: 9,634 deaths of immigrants since 1st Jan. The railway from Montreal to Lachine is opened. 1848-49 - Gold discovered in California, starting the Gold Rush and escalating the pressures on California, Great Basin, and Plains Indians. 1848-51 The so-called Great Ministry of Robert Baldwin and Louis-H. Lafontaine outlines the principles of responsible government in the Canadas. The Maritimes are brought into the plan by Howe, then a reform-minded member of the House of Assembly. 1848 Responsible government established in Nova Scotia and Canada 1848 - First white whalers reach Alaska 1848 - Cathedral of St. Michael dedicated at New Archangel (Sitka). 1848, Jan 2: Maple sugar is made in St. Anselme. 1848, Jan 15: Wellington and Commissioners streets, Montreal, flooded. 1848, Jan 27: Ploughing about Bathurst and Beckwith. 1848, May 15: M.P.'s vote themselves 50 pounds each for 25 days. 1848, Jul 5: Run on the Savings Bank, Montreal, followed by re-deposit. 1848, Sep 20: Opening of the Jesuits' College, Montreal. First telegraph lines in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. 1849 The boundary at the 49th parallel is extended to the Pacific Ocean (bisecting Point Roberts!) 1849 - Courthouse Rebellion in Canada launched by the Red River Metis. 1849 The boundary of the 49th Parallel is extended to the Pacific Ocean. An Act of Amnesty provides for W.L. Mackenzie's return from exile in the U.S. 1849, Jan: The people of St. Jean Chrysostome favor abolishing the feudal tenure. 1849, Jan 20: Lake Superior copper is to be smelted there. 1849, Feb 10: The Governor, Ministers, M. P.'s and Montreal's Council visit St. Hyacinthe, on the St. L. & A. Railway. 1849, Apr 25: For sanctioning the Rebellion Losses Bill, Lord Elgin is mobbed and the Parliament House is burned. 1849, May: The Hayes House, Dalhousie Square, leased for Parliamentary purposes. Parliament to sit, alternately, in Quebec and Toronto. 1849, May 29: Gen. Rowan, Administrator. 1849, July: The Sherbrooke factory makes 4,500 yds. of cotton. 1849, August: Canada is to have 3 penny postage. The annexation movement, started in Montreal, is opposed in Toronto. Officers who signed the manifesto are dismissed and Queen's Counsel lose their silk gowns. 1849, Dec 26: Electors ask J. McConnell, M.P.P. for Stanstead, if he favors annexation, which they believe will, alone, relieve depression. Beauharnois Canal is opened. 1850: In the United States, the Fugitive Slave Act is passed. It provides that even free persons can be made a slave if suspected of being a runaway. As a result, more fugitive slaves and free Black persons come to Canada. 1850: The site of By's headquarters during the construction of the Rideau Canal is incorporated as Bytown. Plains Indian culture is at its height, sustained by the use of horses and the exploitation of large game. 1850, Jan 14: Malcolm Cameron visits Washington about Reciprocity. 1850, Sept: Protestants indignant at a 500 pound grant to Priest Chiniquy for temperance advocacy. Gold discovered in British Columbia, coal in Vancouver's Island. 1850 US has 9000 miles of RR. Canada has 66 miles. Canadian government passes railway guarantee act. 1851: Gabriel Franchere's /Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America/ published in Montreal. 1851: Britain transfers control of the colonial postal system to Canada. 1851, June: Harbor Commissioners deepen Lake St. Peter. 1851, Jul: The bloomer costume appears in Montreal. 1851, Oct 11: The St. L. & A. Railway is opened to Richmond. 1850s: From her home in St. Catherines, Ontario, Harriet Tubman makes 19 trips into the United States to help slaves escape to Canada. In Ontario, the Common Schools Act is passed providing for separate schools for Blacks and Roman Catholics. This results in the creation of separate schools for Blacks, leading in some cases, to Whites refusing to have their children attend schools with Blacks. In Hamilton, Ontario, there are riots as some parents try to prevent Blacks from attending schools with White children. 1852-53: The Grand Trunk Railway receives its charter. 1852, Jul 8: Beginning of a fire which burns 11,000 huses in Montreal. 1852, Oct: The Bank of Montreal issues notes like the Bank of England's; denomination water-marked. 1852 Laval's Seminaire du Quebec founds Universite Laval, North America's oldest French Language university. 1853: Mary Ann Shadd becomes the first woman in North America to become a editor of a newspaper. Working out of Chartam, Ontario, she publishes, edits and writes in the Provincial Freeman, a newspaper serving the Black community in Ontario. 1853: Russian explorer-trappers find oil seeps in Cook Inlet. 1853, Feb 23: A description of the proposed bridge across the St. Lawrence is published. 1853, June 8: Gavazzi riot, at Quebec, quelled by military. 1853, June 9: Gavazzi lectures in Zion Church, Montreal; calls himself, not Protestant, but Christian. The Church being attacked, he calls for cheers for the Queen, and congratulates his hearers that free speech is maintained. Major Wilson reads the Riot Act, but he and Lieut.-Col. Hogarth, 26th Rifles, who alone had a right, deny giving orders to fire. Col. Hogarth praises Captain Cameron, for striking up his Company's guns, at the risk of his life. About 40 are killed or wounded. 1853, Jun 18: The Grand Trunk Railway is opened to Portland. 1853, Jun 26: Investigation of the riot proceeds, at Montreal. 1853, July: Irregular calling of jurors delays trial for riot. 1853 First RR is built, mostly through US to Portland Maine from Montreal. Grand Trunk RR is chartered. 1854 Sawn lumber trade to US grows to feed construction of cities. Results in US-Canada Reciprocity (Free Trade) deal in natural" products. 1854: Establishment of the African Baptist Association of Nova Scotia. 1854 Reciprocity (free trade) begins between British North America and the United States. 1854: Canada and the U.S. sign a Reciprocity Treaty, ensuring reduction of customs duties (June 6). 1855 Bytown is renamed Ottawa. 1856: Formation of the British Methodist Episcopal Church (BME), an all Black church. 1856 - Bessemer furnace used to make steel in England 1856 The Grand Trunk Railway opens its Toronto-Montreal line. 1857 Grand Trunk RR (Windsor-Montreal) completed, but $7 million in debt. 1857 Queen Victoria names Ottawa as Canada's capital. 1857 - David Thompson dies in Montreal 1857 Queen Victoria designates Ottawa as capital of the Province of Canada. 1857 - Coal mining begins at Coal Harbor on the Kenai Peninsula. 1858-59 Canadian gov't imposes revenue tariffs on US manufactured goods to pay for RR debt. US distracted by growing internal conflicts. 1858: About 600 Blacks from California move to Victoria British Columbia. One of them, Mifflin Gibbs, later plays a key role in persuading British Columbia to become part of Canada. 1858 The Halifax-Truro line begins rail service. Chinese immigrants from California arrive in British Columbia, attracted by the Fraser River Gold Rush. 1858 - Second Anglo-Chinese War 1859: Abraham Shadd is elected to the town council in Raleigh, Ontario and becomes the first Black elected to public office. William Hall, born in Hants County, Nova Scotia, becomes the first Nova Scotian and the first Black to win the Victoria Cross for Bravery in the war. The Victoria Cross is the highest military honour in the British Commonwealth. The all-Black Victoria Pioneer Rifle Company is formed to defend British Columbia. 1859 - De Stoeckl returns to U.S. from St. Petersburg with authority to negotiate the sale of Alaska. 1860 The cornerstone of the Parliament buildings is laid (Sept. 1). 1860, December: South Carolina secedes from the United States. 1861-65 US Civil War. British support the South as supplier of cotton for its textile industries. 1861 - Gold discovered on Stikine River near Telegraph Creek. 1861 Howe becomes Premier of Nova Scotia. 1861, January 9: Mississippi secedes from the Union followed by other Southern states in January and February. 1861, February 4: Confederate Provisional Congress, Montgomery, Alabama. 1861, February 9: Jefferson Davis becomes President of the Confederacy. 1861, February 11: Inauguration of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States. 1861, April 15: Nova Scotia: resolution for provincial union by Joseph Howe for referral to the other British North American (BNA) provinces in July. 1861, April 19: Union blockade of Southern ports. 1861, May 13: Britain declares neutrality. 1861, June 1: Britain bans naval craft or privateers of American belligerents from carrying prizes into British ports or territorial waters. 1861, July 21: South wins First Battle of Bull Run. 1861, November 8: The Trent Affair: British packet steamer Trent stopped by Northern warship in international waters. Two Confederate diplomats taken off and imprisoned in Boston. 1861, November 28: Viscount Monck becomes Governor-General. 1861, December 3: Britain sends reinforcements to British North America. 1861, December 23: Britain demands release of Confederate diplomats taken from Trent. 1861, December 26: Confederate diplomats taken from Trent released. 1861 Dr. Anderson Fuffin Abbott becomes the first Canadian Born Black to graduate from medical school. 1862 - Smallpox sweeps through Fort Victoria area and down the length of the Northwest Coast, killing an estimated 200,000 Indian people - William Duncan, an Anglican missionary on Northwest Coast, establishes village of Metlakatla with 50 Tsimshian followers, who adopt Christian faith and European life-styles. By 1880 more than 1,000 converts live there. 1862, April 7: Britain-United States treaty for suppression of African slave trade signed. 1862, May 20: Canada: Macdonald-Cartier government falls. Free interprovincial trade granted by the Crown. 1862, July 29: Britain, the Alabama Claims: the Confederate warship Alabama, built and armed in Britain, sails from Liverpool. U.S. protests. 1862, August 30: South wins Second Battle of Bull Run. 1862, September 30: Battle of Antietam. No clear winner. 1862, December 31: Battle of Murfreesboro. Union wins on January 3. 1862 Mount Allison University accepts the first woman student in Sackville, N.B. 1863, January 1: Lincoln's Proclamation of the Emancipation of the Slaves. 1863, March 3: U.S. Conscription Act. 1863, March 17: Canada: U.S. gives notice of intent to abrogate reciprocity. Militia Act for all males 18-60. 1863, May 2-4: South wins Battle of Chancellorsville. 1863, May 19: Siege of Vicksburg begins. 1863, July 1-3: Battle of Gettysburg. 1863, July 4: Union wins Battle of Vicksburg. 1863, November 19: Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. 1863, November 24: Union wins Battle of Chattanooga. 1863, December 7: New Brunswick and Nova Scotia: the Chesapeake Incident. 1864, March 9: Ulysses S. Grant takes command of million-strong Union army. 1864, May 5-6: Battle of the Wilderness. No clear winner. 1864, May 31: Senate passes Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery. 1864, June 19: CSS Alabama sunk by Union navy. 1864, June 28: Congress repeals Fugitive Slave Law (1850). 1864, June 30: Canada: Macdonald-Cartier "Great Coalition" government formed. 1864, July 18: North-South negotiations begin at Niagara Falls, N.Y. 1864, August 5: Union wins Battle of Mobile Bay. 1864, September 1-9: The Charlottetown Conference. 1864, September 2: Occupation of Atlanta by Sherman. 1864, September 19: Confederate agents use Canada as base for attempt to free Confederate POWs on Johnson Island in Lake Erie. 1864, October 10: The Quebec Conference begins. Adopts the 72 resolutions that form basis for BNA Act. 1864, October 19: St. Albans Raid. 1864, November 8: Lincoln re-elected. 1864, November 16: Sherman begins march through Georgia. 1864 Quebec Conference sets out the terms of union for British North American colonies 1864 Originally designed to discuss Maritime union, the Charlottetown Conference (Sept. 1-9) takes the first steps toward Confederation. The Quebec Conference (Oct. 10-27) identifies the seventy-two resolutions that set out the basis for union. 1864 Oregon Treaty--established 49 parallel as boundary between British North America US 1865, February 3: Canada: Legislature approves message to Crown for union of BNA provinces. 1865, March 7: New Brunswick rejects Confederation scheme. 1865, March 24: Canada: Macdonald, Brown, Cartier, Galt appointed to negotiate Confederation in London. 1865, April 3: Lee surrenders Richmond. 1865, April 9: Surrender of South at Appomattox. 1865, April 14: Lincoln assassinated. 1865, May 10: Capture of Jefferson Davis. 1865, May 29: President Johnson gives limited amnesty to Confederates. 1865, October 20: Proclamation of Ottawa as seat of government. 1865 - Western Union Telegraph Company prepares to put telegraph line across Alaska and Siberia. 1866 Fenians launch first raids into British territory (June 2) 1866 The Fenians, a group of radical Irish-Americans organized in New York in 1859 to oppose British presence in Ireland, begin a series of raids on Canadian territory in the hopes of diverting British troops from the homeland. The most serious of these was the Battle of Ridgeway (June 2), which lent a special urgency to the Confederation movement. The London Conference (Dec. 4) passes resolutions which are redrafted as the British North America Act. 1866 North wins Civil War with large manufacturing growth, large army and anger at British for supporting South. Threats in US Congress to annex Canada. RR's and settlers expanding rapidly west. Reciprocal trade treaty killed by US. 1867: The Dominion of Canada is established by the British North America Act. The provinces of Quebec (Upper Canada), Ontario (Lower Canada), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. 1867: Confederation of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec and Ontario forms the Dominion of Canada. 1867 Sir John A. Macdonald becomes Canada's first prime minister 1867 - U.S. purchase of Alaska from Russia adds Eskimo, Aleut, and Athabascan groups to the U.S. population - Hancock Campaign against the Cheyenne and Arapaho on the Plains - British North America Act creates the Dominion of Canada, which takes responsibility for native affairs. 1867 Confederation. Britain's North American colonies are united by means of the BNA Act to become the Dominion of Canada (July 1). Sir John A. Macdonald is Canada's first Prime Minister. Ottawa offically becomes capital of the Dominion. 1867 - Secretary of State Wilkiam Seward buys Alaska from Czarist Russian for 2 cents an acre or 7.2 millon dollars. But fur resource is totally depleted and purchase hailed as 'Seward's Folly." "Neither culture impressed America when U. S. Secretary of State Seward made a deal with Russia to buy Alaska. The year was 1867 and the purchase was facetiously called Seward's Folly and Seward's Icebox. Most people felt we'd wasted the 7.2 million dollar purchase price on a frozen wasteland." Russia, which is only 51 miles from the Alaskan mainland, sold the U.S. in 1867 for the price of $7,200,000 or about 2 1/2 cents an acre. Great Britain was not interested in buying it. William H. Seward was then U.S. Secretary of State, his offer was agreed to buy Russia. The U.S. Congress approved the purchase, and on October 18, 1867, the American Flag was first raised at Sitka. In 1867, U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward offered Russia $7.2 million for Alaska, or approximately 2 cents per acre. At the time, some Americans scoffed at the purchase, calling Alaska "Seward's Folly" or "Seward's Icebox." The official transfer of Alaska to the United States occurred on October 18, 1867, in ceremonies at the Russian capital of Sitka. 1867 - U.S. purchases Alaska from Russia; Pribilof Islands placed under jurisdiction of Secretary of Treasury. Fur seal population, stablized under Russian rule, declines rapidly. 1867 Confederation unites Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Larger country means better terms for foreign borrowing. Seeks to gain access and control in West before US does it by default. National Policy is announced 1868 Thomas D'Arcy McGee, one of the fathers of Confederation and an outspoken enemy of the Fenians, becomes Canada's first assassination victim at the hands of a Fenian (Apr. 7). 1869-70 - Smallpox epidemic strikes Canadian Plains tribes, including Blackfeet, Piegan, and Blood. 1869 Hudson's Bay Company surrenders territorial rights to Rupert's Land to the Crown 1869 Newfoundlanders reject Confederation in general election 1869 - First Riel Rebellion in Canada Launched by Red River Metis. 1869 Canada purchases Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company. Threatened by Canadian purchases of Hudson's Bay territories, Louis Riel leads the Metis in occupying Fort Garry on the site of Winnipeg (Nov.). 1869 - The Sitka Times, first newspaper in Alaska, published. 1869 Rupert's Land Act: Gov't buys out HBC's ownership rights to West for $20 million and company's right to retain 20 million acres of best land. Manitoba, British Columbia, PEI join Confederation. 1870s Demand for leather goods leads to the destruction of northen bison herds, which in turn leads to the collapse of the western native economy. 1870 Manitoba declared a provisional government in the first Riel (Metis-Cree-Anishinabeg) war, elected Riel repeatedly but he couldn't take office because he was under sentence of death in exile teaching school at the Blackfeet Nation in Montana. 1870 Louis Riel leads Metis resistance to Canadian authority; province of Manitoba created 1870 The Red River Rebellion continues to resist Canadian authority in the northwest. A provisional government is declared (Jan.) but they were driven out by General Wolseley (Aug.) The Manitoba Act creates the province of Manitoba and quells the rebellion. 1871: British Columbia is admitted as a province to Canada (the railroad deal). 1871 Treaty of Washington grants fishing rights on Grand Banks to United States 1871 British Columbia joins Confederation 1871 British Columbia joins confederation (July 20). 1872: Elijah McCoy, born in Colchester, Ontario, invenets the first of his many devices to oil engines used on trains and in factories. His inventions are so good that many people refuse to buy imitations of his work. They insisted on having "The Real McCoy". 1872 - Gold discovered near Sitka and in British Columbia . 1872 New Patent Act encourages import or licensing of technology and foreign patents by allowing legal use (theft) of patent in Canada if not registered in Canada within 2 years. 1872-79 Protective tariffs to protect new Canadian manufacturing firms and raise lots of money for transcontinental RR. 1873: Prince Edward Island joins Canada. 1873 Global economic depression begins 1873 Prince Edward Island joins Confederation. A period of economic depression begins. The North-West Mounted Police are formed. Macdonald resigns over the Pacific Scandal (Nov. 5), which brought attention to huge campaign contributions made by Sir Hugh Allan in exchange for a charter to build the Canadian Pacific Railway. Alexander Mackenzie, a Liberal, becomes Canada's second prime minister. 1874 Riel is elected to the House of Commons but cannot take the seat (Feb.). Alexander Graham Bell discloses the invention of the telephone to his father at the family home on the outskirts of Brantford, Ontario (July 26). Anabaptists (Russian Mennonites) start to arrive in Manitoba from various Russian colonies. 1874 - George Halt said to be the first white man to cross the Chilkoot Pass in search for gold. 1875 Riel is granted amnesty with the condition that he be banished for five years. The Supreme Court of Canada is established. Bell's first functioning telephone is demonstrated in Boston (June). Jennie Trout becomes the first woman licensed to practice medicine in Canada, although Emily Stowe has been doing so without a license in Toronto since 1867. Grace Lockhart receives from Mount Allison University the first Bachelor of Arts degree awarded to a woman. 1876-77 - Sioux War for the Black Hills waged by Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho forces under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. On June 25, 1876, Custer's 7th Cavalry is crushed at Battle of the Little Bighorn. Sitting Bull and followers seek refuge in Canada; in 1877 Crazy Horse is killed while in custody. 1876: Intercolonial Railway linking central Canada and the Maritime provinces is completed. 1876 - Gold discovered south of Juneau at Windham Bay. 1876 - Canadian Indian Act gives individual natives the right to seek Canadian citizenship by renouncing their rights and privileges as Indians. 1876 The Intercolonial Railway, growing out of the Halifax-Truro line, links central Canada and the Maritimes (July 1). The world's first long-distance phone call connects the Bell residence with a shoe and boot store in nearby Paris, Ontario (Aug. 10). The Toronto Women's Literary CLub is founded as a front for the suffrage movement. 1877 - Nez Perce War - Blackfoot tribes cedes land to the Dominion of Canada. 1877 The provincial legislature creates the University of Manitoba, the oldest University in western Canada. 1877 - U.S. troops withdrawn from Alaska. 1878 The Conservatives under Macdonald win federal election. Anti- Chinese sentiment in British Columbia reaches a high point as the government bans Chinese workers from public works. 1879 National Policy imposes tariff on manufactured goods being imported into Canada 1879 Macdonald introduces protective tariffs, a transcontinental railway, and immigration to the west in his National Policy (Mar. 12). 1880-84 The Canadian Pacific Railway recruits thousands of underpaid Chinese Labourers. 1880 Emily Stowe is finally granted a license to practice medicine in Toronto. 1880 Canadian Pacific Railroad (CPR). British-backed Canadian firm, headed by US RR building genius (Van Horne) gets the deal: $25 million, 25 million acres, already completed sections free, all under-construction sections finished free, 20 year monopoly as only RR and 20 year control over rate-setting. 1880's-90's Tariffs encourage over-expansion by local and foreign-owned firms. Market saturation, world depression means lots of Canadian firms lose. 1881 - Sitting Bull and 187 followers surrender to U.S. officials at Fort Buford, North Dakota - John Slocum, a Coast Salish laborer and Catholic convert, begins to preach a gospel of clean living and spiritual renewal. So is born Tschadam, the Indian Shaker religion. 1882 John Ware, a Texas cowboy, moves to Alberta. He introduces longhorn cattle into Canada and pioneers the development of rodeo. 1883 Augusta Stowe, daughter of Emily, is the first woman to graduate from the Toronto Medical School. The Toronto Women's Suffrage Association replaces the Literary Club of 1876. 1884 - Canadian Parliament passes the Indian Advancement Act, encouraging democratic elections of chiefs. Mohawks at St. Regis, Ontario, resist the provision, preferring their traditional method of choosing leaders - Congress acknowledges the rights of Eskimos to Alaskan territorial lands. 1885: The Canadian Pacific Railway is completed. 1885 Transcontinental railway is completed in Eagle Pass, B.C.; 9 days later, Louis Riel is hanged in Regina. 1885 - Canada outlaws the potlatch ceremony among Northwest Coast tribes. The law, often ignored, is repealed in 1951 - Second Riel Rebellion is launched in Metis along the Saskatchewan River in Canada. 1885 Riel, who had become an American citizen in Montana in 1883 only to return to Canada in 1884, leads the North West Rebellion. The Metis are defeated at Batoche (May 2-9) and Riel is hanged in Regina (Nov. 16). The last spike of the transcontinental railway is put in place in the Eagle Pass, B.C. (Nov. 7). 1886 - Mohawk men of the Caughnawaga Reserve in Quebec are trained to help build a bridge across the St. Lawrence River. so begins a tradition of high steel construction work among the Iroguois. 1887 The Liberals choose Wilfred Laurier as leader. The first provincial Premiers' conference takes place in Quebec City. 1888 - Boundary survey started by Dr. W. H. Dall of the U.S. and Dr. George Dawson of Canada. 1889 1890-1914 US firms growing through mergers seek assured markets of supply and sale. 453 US subsidiaries in Ontario by 1914. Canada becomes proving ground for US multinational business. British and US joint ventures in Maritimes and Quebec. Foreign investment encouraged by bonusing - tax breaks and land give-away programs. Canada imposes export (not import) tariffs on timber and lumber products to encourage development of processing (forward linkages) in Canada. 1890 Manitoba stops public funding of Catholic schools; causes uproar in Quebec 1890 Manitoba Liberals under Thomas Greenway halt public finding of Catholic schools (Mar.). Isaac Shupe invents a curious sheet-metal clothing scrubber that automatically releases soap. 1891: Nearly one-quarter of Nova Scotian women are working for wages outside the home. 1892 1893 The National Council of Women of Canada is founded. 1894 1895 The Yukon is made into a provisional district separate from the Northwest territories. 1896-1928 West takes off. Population grows from 400,000 to 2.3 million. Wheat output grows from 55 million bushels to 566 million. Canada becomes world-class exporter. Toronto, Montreal, RR and banks doing enormous business, based on their control over trade. Lots of money coming into Canada from trade and foreign investment. Investments are both portfolio and foreign direct investments (FDI or branch plants). 1896-1900 - Discovery of Gold on a Yukon River tributary brings 100,000 people to Alaska and the Yukon Territory 1896-98 - Klondike Gold Rush to the Yukon Territory and Alaska 1896 The economic depression ends. Liberals under Laurier (the first French Canadian prime minister) win federal election partly on the Manitoba Schools Question, though his compromises are not instituted until 1897. Gold is discovered in the Klondike (Aug. 16). 1897-1900 - Klondike gold rush. 1897-98: The Yukon Territory has a gold rush. 1897 Klondike gold rush begins But the big gold rush came in 1897, when the cry of "Gold!" screamed across newspaper headlines worldwide, and more than 100,000 fortune hunters swarmed to the Klondike gold fields in Canada's Yukon. Wild with "gold fever," prospectors braved raging winter storms as they struggled to cross the Chilkoot Pass - the best known route from the Inside Passage to the river systems and gold fields of Canada and Alaska. 1897 L.T. Snow patents a simple mechanical meat grinder. 1898 Canada issues Christmas postage stamp showing British Empire in "flaming red". 1898 The Klondike Gold Rush is fully under way. The Yukon provisional district is identified as a Territory separate from the Northwest Territories. Doukhobours begin to settle in Saskatchewan. 1899: Boer War begins; the first Canadian troops to serve overseas are sent to South Africa. 1899 The first Canadian troops sent overseas participate in the Boer War in South Africa (Oct. 30). Canada's first woman lawyer is Clara Brett Martin. 1900 Federal immigration policy entices Eastern Europeans to Canadian West. 1900 Canadian-born Reginald Fessenden makes the first wireless radio broadcast near Washington, D.C. (Dec. 23), narrowly beating Marconi, who receives the first transatlantic radio message at St. John's, Newfoundland, in the following year. 1901: Marconi receives the first transatlantic radio message at St. John's, Newfoundland. 1902: Saskatchewan admitted as province. 1902 - Entire Eskimo population of Southampton Island in Hudson Bay is wiped out by typhus. 1903: Canada loses Alaska Boundary dispute when British representative sides with U.S. 1903 A prospector in northern Ontario stumbles across the world's richest silver vein 1903 Canada loses the Alaska boundary dispute when British tribunal representative Lord Alverstone sides with the U.S. (Oct. 20). Silver is discovered in Northern Ontario. The first nude demonstrations of the Doukhobours take place near Yorkton, Saskatchewan, to protest governmental policy regarding individual ownership. 1904 1905 Provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta are formed. 1905 The Provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan are formed. 1906 Sir Adam Beck creates the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario (May 7), the largest such company in Canada. 1907: Industrial Disputes Investigation Act (IDIA) requires compulsory conciliation of labour disputes. 1907 - Seventy high-steel works of the Iroquois Caughnawaga Band killed while working on the Quebec Bridge. 1908 Peter Verigin, leader of the Doukhobours since his arrival in Canada in 1902, leads the extremist Sons of Freedom to British Columbia. 1909: Black farmers from Oklahoma start settling into Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. 1909 The Department of External Affairs is formed. The first Grey Cup is played. Canada's first powered air flight takes place at Baddeck, N.S. 1910 Federal government decides to establish the Royal Canadian Navy. 1910 Laurier creates a Canadian navy the Naval Service Bill. 1911 Liberal government of Wilfred Laurier loses Reciprocity election; Robert Borden becomes Prime Minister 1911 Robert Borden and the Conservatives win federal election, defeating Laurier on the issue of Reciprocity. 1911 - International agreement between U.S., Great Britain, Canada, Russia, and Japan controls fur seal fisheries; sea otters placed under complete protection; Copper River and Northwestern Railroad begins service to Kennecott Copper Mine. 1912: Manitoba is admitted as a province. 1912 S.S. Titanic sinks off Newfoundland; recovered bodies are buried in Halifax cemetery 1912 A botanist, Carrie Derrick, is Canada's first woman professor, at McGill University. 1913 Canadian economy goes into a slump 1914-1918 WWI strengthens US, weakens England. 1914-1918: World War One. 1914-18: Black Canadians join combat units and a construction battalion, is formed as a segregated unit in the First World War. They serve with great loyalty, even though the Government of Canada tries to keep Blacks out of the Armed Forces, and even though Black soldiers are abused, and sometimes physically attacked just because of their skin colour. 1914 Canada automatically enters First World War when Britain declares war on Germany (August 4) 1914 The C.P. ship Empress of Ireland sinks in the St. Lawrence within fifteen minutes of a collision in dense fog. Over one thousand lives are lost (May 29). With nearly four hundred passengers on board, the Komagata Maru drops anchor in Burrard Inlet, sparking political manoeuvres intended to exclude unwanted Sikh immigrants (May-July). Britain declares war on Germany (Aug. 4), automatically drawing Canada into the conflict. The first Canadian troops leave for England (Oct. 3). Parliament passes the War Measures Act, allowing suspension of civil rights during periods of emergency. 1915 In their first battle, the 1st Canadian Division face one of the first recorded chlorine gas attacks at Ypres, Belgium (Apr. 22). John McCrae writes "In Flanders' Fields." National Transcontinental, the eastern division of the Grand Trunk Railway, consolidates a line from Moncton to Winnipeg. 1916 - Thompson's /Narrative of Travels in Western North America, 1784-1812/ published by Champlain Society in Toronto 1916 The Parliament buildings are destroyed by fire (Feb. 3). The 1st Canadian Division discovers that the Canadian-made Ross rifle (controversial since 1905) is unreliable in combat conditions. It is withdrawn from service and replaced by the British-made Lee- Enfield (Aug.). The National Research Council is established to promote scientific and industrial research. Female suffrage is first granted in Canada in Manitoba. 1917 French munitions ship Mont Blanc catches fire and explodes in Halifax harbor on December 6th; 2,000 killed. 1917 Canadians capture Vimy Ridge after British and French attempts fail. 1917 Income tax is introduced by the federal government as a "temporary wartime measure". 1917 Income tax is introduced as a temporary wartime measure. Borden sits as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet (Feb. 23), giving Canada a voice in international war policy. The military service bill is introduced (June 11), leading to a conscription crisis dividing French and English Canada. A Union Government (a coalition of Liberals and Tories) under Borden wins in a federal election, in which all women of British origin are allowed to vote for the first time. Canadians capture Vimy Ridge, France (Apr. 9-12) and Passchendaele, Belgium (Nov. 6), in two of the war's worst battles. The explosion of a munitions ship in Halifax harbour wipes out two square miles of Halifax, killing almost 2000 and injuring 9000 (Dec. 6). In Alberta, Louise McKinney becomes the first woman elected to a legislature in the British Commonwealth. 1918 Under the War Measures Act, manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages is prohibited in Canada. 1918 Canadians break through the German trenches at Amiens, France (Aug. 8), beginning "Canada's Hundred Days." Armistice ends the war (Nov. 11). Imprisoned in South Dakota for pacificism, Hutterites flee northward into the Prairie provinces. 1919 Grand Trunk Pacific, the western division of the Grand Trunk Railway, consolidates a line from Winnipeg to Prince Rupert. The Canadian National Railways is created as a crown corporation to acquire and further consolidate these smaller lines. The first successful transatlanctic flight leaves St. John's, Nfld. (June 14). Beginning in the metals and buildings trades as a call for union recognition, a general strike expands until it paralyzes Winnipeg (May 19-June 26). An armed charge by the RCMP on Bloody Saturday kills one and injures thirty (June 21). James Shaver Woodsworth and others were charged with seditious conspiracy. The federal government passes a Technical Education act. 1920's Strong north/south trade develops in forest products, pulp and paper, minerals from Canada to feed US urbanization, construction and industrialization. Canada still specialized in staples exports. US auto production expands into Canada, mostly for more favourable export terms to the British Empire. Strengthening of the provinces who have constitutional control over booming resource sector. 1920: With passage of the Volstead Act in the United States, the rum-running era begins. 1920: Canada joins the League of Nations at its inception. The Progressive Party is formed by T. A. Crerar to obtain law tariffs for western farmers. 1921 Mackenzie King and the Liberals win federal election. Agnes Macphail becomes the first woman elected to Parliament, then representing the Progressive Party (which came in second and held the balance of power despite refusals to form an official opposition). Woodsworth becomes the first socialist elected to the House of Commons. The Bluenose is launched at Lunenburg, N.S. (Mar. 26). Colonial Motors of Walkerville, Ontario manufactures an automobile called the Canadian. 1922 Foster Hewitt makes the world's first radio broadcast of a hockey game 1922 The Canadian Northern and Canadian Transcontinental Railways merge to form the Canadian National Railways. Canada's reveals a growing independence by not going to Britain's aid in the Chanak crisis in Turkey. Banting, Best, MacLeod, and Collip share the Nobel Prize for the discovery of insulin. Foster Hewitt makes the first hockey broadcast. A Provincial Franchise Committee is organized in Quebec to work towards female suffrage in the province. Of the other provinces, only Newfoundland has not yet given women the vote. 1923 A feeling of independence continues to grow. Canada signs the Halibut Treaty with the U.S. without the traditional British signature. Mackenzie King leads the opposition to a common imperial policy at the Imperial Conference in London. Always heavily subsidized, the Grand Trunk Railway is finally taken over by the government. The federal government more or less forbids Chinese immigration on Dominion Day, soon to be called "Humiliation Day" by Chinese-Canadians. 1923: Canada deals directly with U.S. without British participation in signing Halibut Treaty. 1924 1925 Delegation of Maritime businessmen and politicians travels to Ottawa to lobby for Maritime Rights 1925 Newfoundland women receive the right to vote. 1926 Old age pension instituted by federal government 1926 Royal Commission (Duncan) report recommends restoration of preferential Maritime railway freight rates. 1926 The Balfour Report defines British dominions as autonomous and equal in status (Nov. 18). 1927 Britain's Privy Council awards Labrador to Newfoundland instead of Quebec (Mar. 1). The first coast-to-coast radio network broadcast celebrates the Diamond Jubilee of Confederation. 1928 Supreme Court of Canada rules that women are not "persons" who can be elected to public office. 1928 The Supreme Court of Canada rules that the BNA Act does not define women as "persons" and are therefore not eligible to hold public office. 1929 British Privy Council overrules Supreme Court "non-person" decision. 1929 New York Stock Market crash 1929 The British Privy Council reverses the Supreme Court decision of 1928, and women are legally declared "persons" (Oct. 18). The Great Depression begins. the Workers' Unity League is formed. 1930's US trade and investment surpasses that of England. Great Depression shifts power back to fed which has greater tax and spend power than bankrupt provinces. 1930 The Conservatives under R.B. Bennett win federal election. Jean de Brebeuf and other Jesuit martyrs are officially canonized. Canada's first woman senator is Cairine Wilson. 1931 Female worker at Ganong's candy factory in St. Stephen, N.B., makes $14/wk; her male foreman makes $32/wk 1931 Statute of Westminster grants Canada full autonomy from Britain 1931 The Statute of Westminster (Dec. 11) authorizes the Balfour Report (1926), granting Canada full legislative authority in both internal and external affairs. The Governor General becomes a representative of the Crown. 1932 The Ottawa Agreements provide for preferential trade between Canada and other Commonwealth nations. Woodsworth plays a role in forming a democratic socialist political party, the Co-Operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Calgary. Bennett's government establishes militaristic and repressive Relief Camps to cope with the problem of unemployed single men. Doukhobours add the burning of farm buildings to their protest techniques. 1933 Newfoundland Assembly votes to suspend self-government; British appoint "Commission of Government". 1934 The Dionne quintuplets are born in Callander, Ontario 1934 The Bank of Canada is formed. The birth of the Dionne quintuplets attracts international media attention. 1935 R.B. Bennett's "New Deal" for Canada announced; Supreme Court later declares it ultra vires. 1935 Inspired in part by the Workers' Unity League, about one thousand unemployed and disillusioned men from all over the western provinces begin a mass march, usually called the On-to-Ottawa trek, to confront Bennett over the Relief Camps (June 3-July 1). In an attempt to remove a corrupt Liberal administration, Maurice Duplessis, a Quebec Conservative, allies with a splinter group of Liberals under Paul Gouin to form the Union nationale. 1936 Driven by the reformist Union nationale, Duplessis manages to oust Gouin and becomes Premier of Quebec. 1937 The Rowell-Sirois Commission is appointed to investigate the financial relationship between the federal government and the provinces. Trans Canada Air Lines begins regular flights (Sept. 1). 1938 Meeting Mackenzie King in Kingston, Franklin D. Roosevelt is the first U.S. president to make an official visit to Canada. The Workers' Unity League helps to organize the Vancouver Sit-ins in which Relief Camp workers and others occupied the Vancouver Post Office and some other public buildings. The protest was peaceful until the police extracted the men by force on Bloody Sunday (June 19), when 35 people were wounded. 1939-1945: World War Two. 1939-45: In the Second World War, authorities again try to keep Blacks out of the armed forces, but Blacks insist on serving their country. Eventually, they join all services of the war, often serving with distinction. 1939: Canada enters World War II after remaining neutral for 1 week; pro-war party in Quebec wins provincial election. 1939 - The Seneca of Tonawanda, New York, issue a Declaration of Independence from the state of New York. 1939 Canada declares war on Germany (Sept. 10) after remaining neutral for a week following the British declaration. Premier Duplessis opposes Quebec's participation but is defeated by the Liberals on the issue (Oct. 26). 1940-44 WWII. Mackenzie King forges military alliance with Roosevelt. War production booms, largely public-owned, as Canada becomes major industrial player with very close political and economic ties to US. War provides Keynsian economic stimulus. 1940 Ogdensburg Agreement co-ordinates industrial output of Canada and U.S. 1940 The Unemployment Insurance Commission is introduced. Canada and the U.S. form a Permanent Joint Defense Board. Parliament passes the controversial National Resources Mobilization Act (June), which allows conscription for military service only within Canada. Despite provincial disagreement, some of the financial recommendations of the Rowell-Sirois commission -- especially those relating to a minimum national standard of services -- are implicitly and unilaterally adopted by Ottawa. Idola Saint-Jean and other early feminists finally succeed in obtaining the vote for Quebecois women. 1941 Hong Kong falls to the Japanese and Canadians are taken as POW's. The U.S. enters the war due to Japanese aggression. Together, the incidents lead to racial intolerance in Canada. 1942: Construction boom due to American and Canadian military bases eliminates unemployment in Newfoundland. 1942 Canadian raid on French port of Dieppe is a disaster; British later claim it was useful rehearsal for D-Day 1942 About 22000 Canadians of Japanese descent are stripped of non- portable possessions, interned and evacuated as security risks (Feb. 26). A national plebiscite approves amendment of the National Resources Mobilization Act to permit sending conscripts overseas (Apr. 27), once again revealing deep divisions between Quebec and English Canada. The Dieppe raid (Aug. 19), Canada's first participation in the European theatre, is a disaster. 1943 Canadians participate in the invasion of Sicily (July 10) and win the Battle of Ortona, a German stronghold on the Adriatic (Dec. 20- 28). 1944 Canadian troops advance further inland than any other Allied unit on D-Day (June 6) 1944 Saskatchewan voters elect the first socialist government in North America, led by Tommy Douglas 1944 Canadian troops push further than other allied units on D-Day (June 6). Canadian forces fight as a separate army (July 23). The Family Allowance Act is passed (Aug.). The CCF under Tommy Douglas wins the provincial election in Saskatchewan, forming the first socialist government in North America. 1945-50 Industry returns to private sector. Welfare State emerges (especially family allowances, old age security and unemployment insurance) helping King's Liberal gov't compete with growing left-wing alternative (CCF). Military Keynsianism transformed into social program Keynsianism. 1945 European hostilities end (May 5). The first family allowance ("baby-bonus") payments are made (June 20). Canada joins the United Nations (June 26). Hostilities in the Pacific basin end (Sep. 2). Igor Gouzenko defects from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa (Sept. 5) and reveals the existence in Canada of a Soviet spy network. Canada's first nuclear reactor goes on line in Chalk River, Ontario. 1946: Carrie Best, of New Glasgow, Nova Scotia, starts publishing a newspaper called The Clarion. Later its name changes to The Negro Citizen. It continues publication for 10 years. As a publisher and writer, Carrie Best shows that Blacks are often not treated fairly in Nova Scotia. She shows how they are not served on restaurants, and kept out of theatres. Best helps to get rid of those practices, making Nova Scotia - and Canada - a better place to live. 1947 1948 Louis St. Laurent succeeds Mackenzie as prime minister (Nov. 15). 1949: Newfoundland joins Canada. 1949 Newfoundland becomes Canada's tenth province on March 31st 1949 Joey Smallwood brings Newfoundland into Confederation (Mar. 31). Canada joins NATO. Canada's Supreme Court replaces Britain's judicial committee as the final court of appeal. 1950's Enormous growth, very rapid expansion of US branch plants into Canada with infrastructure again planned, financed by government. Massive oil and gas exports to US balances imports of technology and sub-assemblies. 1950 Volunteers in the Canadian Army Special Force join the United Nations forces in the Korean war. 1951 Mid-century census records Canada's population as 14 million 1951 Royal Commission (Massey) reports that Canadian culture is dominated by American influences 1951 Census shows population as just over 14 million. The Massey Royal Commission reports that Canadian cultural life is dominated by American influences. Recommendations include improving grants to universities and the eventual establishment of the Canada Council (1957). 1952 First television stations in Canada begin broadcasting in Montreal (Sept. 6) and Toronto (Sept. 8) 1952 Vincent Massey becomes the first native-born Governor General. Canada's first television stations begin part-time broadcasts in Montreal and Toronto (Sept.). 1953 The National Library is established in Ottawa (Jan. 1). The Stratford Festival opens (July 13). The Korean War ends (July 27). 1954: Segragation ends in Nova Scotia schools with the advent of changes to the law that permitted Segragation. 1954 The post-war boom is briefly interrupted by an economic slump. The first Canadian subway opens in Toronto (Mar. 30). Viewers of the British Empire games in Vancouver see two runners break the four minute mile in the same race. Marilyn Bell is the first person to swim across Lake Ontario (Sept. 9). Hurricane Hazel kills almost seven dozen people in Toronto (Oct. 15). 1955 Montreal Canadiens hockey star Maurice "Rocket" Richard is suspended for fighting; riots break out in Montreal. 1955: The Canadian Pacific railway finally starts ot let some Blacks work as railway conductors. Before that time, many Blacks worked on the railway, primarily as porters, but none were allowed to be conductors. 1955 The Canadian Labour Congress is formed. Riots in Montreal are caused by the suspension of hockey star Rocket Richard (Mar. 17). 1956 The Liberals use closure to limit the Pipeline Debate -- which begins with concern over the funding of the natural gas industry and ends in contoversy over proper parliamentary procedure (May 8- June 6). The action contributes directly to their electoral defeat (after twenty two years in power) the following year. 1957 John Diefenbaker and the Conservatives win a minority government (June 10). Ellen Fairclough becomes the first female federal cabinet minister. The Canada Council is formed to foster Canadian cultural uniqueness. Lester B. Pearson wins the Nobel Peace Prize for helping resolve the Suez Crisis (Oct. 12). 1958 Diefenbaker's minority becomes the largest majority ever obtained in a federal election (Mar. 31). A coal mine disaster at Springhill, N.S. kills 74 miners. 1959 Canadian government cancels the Avro Arrow; many engineers on the project end up working for NASA. 1959 St. Lawrence Seaway opens 1959 Diefenbaker cancels the Avro Arrow project (CF-105 aircraft) to public outcry. Almost 14000 jobs are lost (Feb. 20). The St. Lawrence Seaway opens (June 26). 1950-60: New laws make it illegal to refuse to let people work, to be served in stores or restaurants or to move into a home because of race. 1960s: Large nimbers of people from the Carribean start settling in Canada. 1960-65 Some emerging concern about dependence on US and for'n ownership. Auto Pact with US signed in 1965 allowing limited free trade in auto sector and continental integration of auto market (ending reliance on smaller, inefficient branch plants). 1960 "Quiet Revolution" begins in Quebec. 1960 Liberals under Jean Lesage win provincial election in Quebec (June 22), inaugurating the Quiet Revolution which pressed for special status within Confederation. A Canadian Bill of Rights is approved. Native people win the right to vote in federal elections. 1961 The New Democratic Party replaces the CCF. 1962 Trans-Canada Highway officially opens 1962: Daniel G. Hill, an American born Black who moved to canada in 1950, is made the first director of the Ontario Human Rights Commission, the first government agency in Canada set up to protect citizens from discrimination. Hill later becomes chairman of the Commission. Later still, he serves as the Ombudsman of Ontario. He also writes three books, including The Freedom Seekers: Blacks in Early Canada. The Canadian immigration policy changes, emphasising that education and skills of the applicant are to be the main criteria for entry into Canada. This leads to the "Points System" in 1967, which is considered more equitable for Blacks. 1962 The Conservatives are returned to minority status in a federal election (June 18). Socialized medicine is introduced in Saskatchewan (July 1), leading to a doctors' strike. The Trans- Canada Highway opens (Sept. 3). Canada becomes the third nation in space with the launch of the satellite Alouette I (Sept. 29). Canada's last executions take place in Toronto (Dec. 11). 1963: Leonard Braithwaite is elected to the Ontario legislature, and is the first Black to serve in a provincial legislature in Canada. 1963 Liberals under Pearson win a minority government (Apr. 8). The separatist Front de liberation du Quebec (FLQ) sets off bombs in Montreal (Apr.-May). A TCA flight crashes in Quebec, killing 118 (Nov. 29). 1964: Harry Jerome of Vancouver, British Colombia, wins a bronze medal in the 100-metre dash at the Tokyo Olympics. Earlier he has run the distance in the world record time of 10.0 seconds. In 1971, he is awarded the Order of Canada "for excellence in all fields of Canadian life." Segragation becomes against the law in Ontario, bringing an end to racially separated classrooms in Ontario. "I did not know that starting school in 1965, that I would be a part of the first non-segregated classrooms in Toronto." 1965 Canadians get social insurance cards (Apr.) Northern Dancer is the first Canadian horse to win the Kentucky Derby. 1965-70 N. American economy begins to grow at slower rate than other industrial economies (in which it has invested). US suffers negative trade balance. 1965 Groundfish landings in Northwest Atlantic peak at 2.8 million tons. 1965 The Auto Pact, forerunner of NAFTA, is signed between United States and Canada 1965 Canada and the U.S. sign the Auto Pact (Jan.). The new flag is inaugurated (Feb. 15). Roman Catholic churches begin to celebrate masses in English (Mar. 7). The Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario inadvertently causes a major power blackout in North America (Nov. 9). 1966 The Munsinger affair (in which the Associate Minister of National Defence, Pierre Sevigny, had a liaison with a German divorcee suspected by the RCMP) becomes Canada's first political sex scandal (Mar. 4). The Canada Pension Plan is established. The CBC introduces some colour broadcasts (Oct. 1). 1967 The air force, army, and navy are unified as the Canadian Armed Forces (Apr. 25). World attention is turned to Expo '67 in Montreal (Apr. 27). Centennial celebrations officially begin (July 1). French president Charles de Gaulle says "Vive le Quebec libre" in Montreal (July 24). 1968 Pierre Trudeau succeeds Pearson as leader of the Liberals and wins a majority in a federal election (June 25) in an atmosphere like a media circus. A Royal Commission on the Status of Women is appointed. Canadian divorce laws are reformed. 1969 The federal government becomes officially bilingual 1969 Postal reforms end Saturday deliveries (Feb. 1). Abortion laws are liberalized (May). English and French are both recognized as offical languages by the federal government (July 9). The breathalizer is put into use to test for drunken drivers (Dec. 1). 1970's US pres. Nixon realizes US can't prop up its globally over-supplied currency (and therefore fight inflation) by keeping dollar tied to gold. Shifts strategy by giving aggressive tax breaks to exporters, threatening Canada, its largest trading partner. Encourages branch plants in Canada to import technology and supplies from US thereby threatening Canada's internal trading system and economic sovereignty. GATT negotiations lead Canada to reduce tarriff protection anyway. Growth in resource producing regions (Alberta) stronger than elsewhere. 1970 The FLQ, a militant separatist group in Quebec, kidnaps British diplomat and murders Quebec cabinet minister. 1970 British trade commissioner James Cross is kidnapped by the FLQ (Oct. 5), precipitating the October Crisis. Quebec's labour and immigration minister Pierre Laporte is kidnapped (Oct. 10) and later found murdered. The War Measures Act is invoked (Oct. 16), banning the FLQ and leading eventually to nearly 500 arrests. 1971 The federal government officially adopts a policy of multiculturalism. Gerhard Herzberg of the National Research Council wins the Nobel Prize in chemistry for studies of smog. 1972 Canada wins the first hockey challenge against the Soviets. Trudeau's Liberals win a minority government by only two seats. 1972 Rosemary Brown of Vancouver, British Columbia, becomes the first Black woman elected to a provincial legislature in Canada. 1973 The House of Commons criticizes U.S. bombing of North Vietnam (Jan. 5). Henry Morgentaler is acquitted of illegal abortion charges in Montreal (Nov. 13). The separatist Parti Quebecois becomes the official opposition in a provincial election. 1974 Dr. Monestime Saint Firmin is elected Mayor of Mattawa, Ontario, making him Canada's first Black Mayor. 1974 The Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario changes its name to Ontario Hydro and begins to update its image (Mar. 4). Mikhail Baryshnikov defects in Montreal (June 29). Trudeau's Liberals win a majority government (July 8). 1975 Toronto's CN Tower becomes the world's tallest free-standing structure (Apr. 2). The Foreign Investment Review Agency intends to screen foreign investment in Canada (July 18). TV cameras are allowed in the House of Commons for the first time. Trudeau institutes wage and price controls to fight inflation (Oct. 14). 1976 Canada announces 200-nautical-mile coastal fishing zone 1976 Parti Quebecois under Rene Levesque wins Quebec provincial election on separatist platform 1976 Canada announces a 200-mile coastal fishing zone (June 4). The death penalty is abolished (July 14). The Olympic games are held in Montreal (July 17-31) under tight security. Team Canada wins the first Canada Cup (Sept. 15). Rene Levesque and the Parti Quebecois win a provincial election (Nov. 15). The Eaton Company discontinues catalogue sales after 92 continuous years. 1977 Quebec passes Bill 101, restricting English schooling to children of parents who had been educated in English schools (Aug. 26). Highway signs are changed to the metric system (Sept. 6). 1978 The remains of a Soviet nuclear-powered satellite crash in Canada's north (Jan. 24). Manufacturers of birth control pills are required to provide labels of health risks for smokers and women over forty. Sun Life Assurance acknowledges that it moved its head office to Toronto because of Montreal's language laws and political instability. 1979 Lincoln Alexander, of Hamilton, Ontario, becomes Canada's first Black cabinet minister. He serves as Minister of Labour in the federal government. from 1985 to 1991, he serves as the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario. 1979 Conservatives under Joe Clark win a federal election (May 22). The first uniquely Canadian gold bullion coin, stamped with a Maple Leaf, goes on sale (Sept. 5). Most of Mississauga, Ontario is evacuated to avoid derailed train cars containing chemicals (Nov. 10). The Supreme Court of Canada declares unconstitutional the creation of officially unlilingual legislatures in Manitoba and Quebec (Dec. 13). Clark's Conservatives lose a non-confidence vote on the budget (Dec. 13), forcing their resignation. 1980's-90's Recessions, debt crisis, increasing social inequalities, inflation fighting, downsizing in traditional manufacturing, continental free trade (eventually NAFTA), globalization. New conditions force regions and industries to be more competitive with less help from cash-starved gov't. 1980 The majority of Quebecers reject separation from Canada in a referendum vote. 1980: US, Canada, Japan and West Germany boycot Summer Olympic Games in Moscow, in protest of Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. 1980 Ken Taylor, Canadian ambassador to Iran, becomes an international celebrity for helping six Americans escape Tehran (Jan. 28). Canada boycotts Moscow's Olympic games due to the invasion of Afghanistan. A Quebec referendum rejects sovereignty-association (May 22). "O Canada" is offically adopted as Canada's national anthem (June 27). The Supreme Court recognizes the equal distribution of assets in failed common-law relationships. 1981 Quebec bans public signs in English 1981 Terry Fox dies of cancer in the middle of his cross-Canada Marathon of Hope (June 29). His example eventually raises about 25 million dollars. Quebec bans public signs in English (Sept. 23). The federal and provincial governments (except Quebec) agree on a method to repatriate Canada's constitution (Nov. 5). 1982: New Canadian Constitution is ratified by every province except Quebec. 1982 The offshore oil rig Ocean Ranger sinks, killing 84 (Feb. 15). Bertha Wilson is the first woman appointed as a Justice of the Supreme Court (Mar. 4). The Quebec government demand for a veto over constitutional change is rejected (Apr. 7). Canada gains a new Constitution and Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Apr. 17). The worst recession since the Great Depression begins. 1983 Pay TV begins operation (Feb. 1). Public outcry opposes the government's approval of U.S. cruise missile testing in the west. Jeanne Sauve is appointed the first female Governor General (Dec. 23). 1984-88 Daurene Lewis serves as Mayor of Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia. She is the first Black woman to be elected Mayor of a Canadian city. 1984 Brian Mulroney, a bilingual lawyer from Quebec, leads Conservatives to biggest landslide in Canadian history 1984 John Turner succeeds Trudeau as Liberal prime minister (June 30) but is soon defeated by Brian Mulroney's Conservatives with an even larger majority than that achieved by Diefenbaker in 1958 (Sept. 4). The Pope visits Canada (Sept. 9-20). Hitching a ride on the U.S. shuttle Challenger, Marc Garneau becomes the first Canadian in space (Oct. 5). 1985 U.S. ice-breaker Polar Sea challenges Canada's Arctic sovereignty by travelling through the Northwest Passage. Mulroney and U.S. president Ronald Reagan declare mutual support for orbital Strategic Defense Initiatives (Star Wars) and Free Trade at the Shamrock Summit (so-named for their ethnic backgrounds) in Quebec City (Dec. 2). Ontario Liberals under David Peterson end forty years of Conservative Premiership. Lincoln Alexander becomes Ontario's first black lieutenant-governor. 1986 The Canadian dollar hits an all-time low of 70.2 U.S. cents on international money markets (Jan. 31). Expo '86 opens in Vancouver (May 2-Oct. 13). The U.S. imposes tariffs on some imported Canadian wood products (May 22). Canada adopts sanctions against South Africa for its apartheid policies (Aug. 5). Tamil refugees are found drifting off the coast of Newfoundland (Aug. 11). Canada receives a United Nations award for sheltering world refugees (Oct. 6). Canadian John Polanyi shares the Nobel prize for chemistry. 1987 Mulroney and the provincial Premiers agree in principle to the Meech Lake Accord designed to bring Quebec into the new Constitution (Apr. 30). A tornado rips through Edmonton, killing 26 and injuring hundreds (July 20). Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson sets a new world record (Aug. 30) for the 100-metre dash. The Canada- U.S. Free Trade agreement is reached (Oct. 3), but still requires ratification. Stock prices tumble throughout the world (Oct. 19). 1988 Ben Johnson, a Canadian Olympic 100 meter runner shatters the 100 meter sprinting record. Although later disqualified for steroid use by the IOC he was for a short time the fastest man ever to run that distance in all of history. 1988 The Supreme Court strikes down existing legislation against abortion as unconstitutional (Jan. 28). The Winter Olympics open in Calgary (Feb. 13). David See-Chai Lam, born in Hong Kong, becomes British Columbia's lieutenant-governor (Sept. 9). Ben Johnson sets a world record and wins the gold medal at the Seoul Olympics in Korea (Sept. 24). Testing positive for steroids, he is stripped of his medal two days later. The Supreme Court strikes down Quebec's French-only sign law (Dec. 15). Finding a loophole (the "notwithstanding" clause) in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the province reinstates the law (Dec. 21). Manitoba Premier Gary Filmon slows the ratification of the Meech Lake Accord in reaction to Quebec's move. Free Trade legislation passes the House of Commons and the Senate (Dec.). 1989 Free Trade goes into effect (Jan 1). Heather Erxleben becomes Canada's first acknowledged female combat soldier. One-dollar bills are replaced by the one-dollar coin, popularly called the "loonie." The government announces cuts in the funding of VIA Rail, to much public outcry (June 5). The first woman to lead a federal political party, Audrey McLaughlin replaces Ed Broadbent as head of the NDP (Dec. 2). Fourteen female engineering students are separated from their male colleagues and murdered by a gunman at the University of Montreal (Dec. 6). 1990 Afican National Congress leader Nelson Mandela, who has just been freed from South African jail, visits Canada. He speaks to huge crowds in Montreal and Toronto. 1990 Newfoundland Premier Clyde Wells further slows down the signing of the Meech Lake Accord, but a native member of the Manitoba legislative, Elijah Harper, deals it the fatal blow with his absolute refusal to accept Quebec as Canada's principal, if not only, "distinct society" (June 22). One of the many responses is the formation of the Bloc Quebecois by a handful of disenchanted politicians (July 25). Bob Rae upsets David Peterson and, with a surprising majority, becomes Ontario's first NDP Premier (Sept.). Despite the Liberals' sometimes peculiar stalling tactics, the Senate passes the unpopular Goods and Services Tax (Dec.). A recession is officially announced. 1991 Jean-Bertrand Astride, the President of Haiti, who was forced out of his country when the military seized power, visits Canada. He meets with Prime Minister Mulroney and is warmly welcomed by the large Haitian community in Montreal, where he had studied at the University of Montreal in the 1980's. Julius Alexander Isaac, a native of Grenada, is named Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Canada. He becomes the first Black Chief Justice in Canada and the first to serve on the Federal Court. 1991 The unpopular Goods and Services Tax comes into effect (Jan. 1). Canadian forces join the multinational forces in the battle to drive Saddam Hussein's Iraqi troops from Kuwait (Jan. 15). British Columbia premier Bill Van Der Zalm resigns in the midst of a real estate scandal. George Erasmus, leader of the Assembly of First Nations, resigns at the end of his second term (May); he is succeeded by Ovide Mercredi, whose popularity earns him the nickname of "eleventh premier." Yet another committee crosses the country soliciting citizens' opinions on proposed constitutional reforms. David Schindler of the University of Alberta wins the first international Stockholm Water Prize for environmental research. In a Brantford, Ontario courtroom, a Six Nations man is the first to be allowed to make a traditional native oath instead of swearing on the Bible (Nov.). The Tungavik sign an agreement with Ottawa to create a new, quasi-independent Inuit territory in the eastern Arctic. 1992 The Miss Canada pageant is scrapped. Roberta Bondar is Canada's first female astronaut in orbit. Ontario lawyers vote no longer to swear an oath to the Queen (Jan.). Canada is the first country to sign the international bio-diversity convention at the Earth Summit in Brazil (June). Although the players are all American, the Toronto Blue Jays become the first nominally Canadian team to win baseball's World Series. Canadians vote "no" in a referendum seeking popular support for the Charlottetown Agreement, intended as a corrective to the Canadian Constitution in the wake of the failed Meech Lake Accord (Oct. 26). 1993 Catherine Callbeck becomes the first woman Premier, in Prince Edward Island. Environmental activists cause minor damage to government buildings in Victoria, B.C., during a demonstration (Mar.). Kim Campbell replaces Brian Mulroney as the head of the Progressive Conservatives, becoming Canada's first woman Prime Minister (June). Part of northwest B.C. is set aside as a world heritage conservation site. Protesters block loggers' access to ancient forests near Clayoquot Sound (July-Aug.). The Toronto Blue Jays win the World Series for the second year in a row (Oct. 23). Liberal leader Jean Chretien is elected in a landslide victory, with Lucien Bouchard's Bloc Quebecois and Preston Manning's Reform Party only one seat apart in distant second and third places (Oct. 25). The Progressive Conservatives, in power for nine years, are reduced to a mere two seats -- less than is required to be considered an official party. 1994 The Canadian pilot of a Korean airliner that crashed is arrested for endangering the lives of his passengers. 1995 - Canadian fisherman attack an Alaska ferry with paint and ball bearings projected from sling shots in frustration over inconclusive U.S.-Canada Pacific Salmon Treaty talks, which hinder Southeast Alaska's troll king salmon fishery. 1996 Donavan Bailey, of Oakville Ontario becomes the fastest man in world by taking the 100 meter sprints, at the Atlanta Olympic Games. Donavan broke both the Olympic and World records. 1997 A thirteen kilometre bridge connecting Prince Edward Island to the mainland is opened. 1998: Today.